The Siege of Jerusalem (70 AD) - The Great Jewish Revolt [FULL DOCUMENTARY]

The siege of Jerusalem was a massive military endeavor the likes of which had not been seen since the fall of Carthage two centuries earlier. Starting in April of 70 A.D. and lasting nearly five months, the battle would be a brutal, no-holds-barred brawl fought over every inch of the city. At stake was the success of the Great Revolt in Judea and the survival of the Jewish people. Roman involvement in Judea first began in 63 B.C. when Pompey the Great was drawn into a Jewish civil war and eventually seized Jerusalem. However, the region saw much turbulence during the final years of the Republic and was taken over by the Parthians before legions returned to install the puppet King Herod. Eventually, a series of procurators oversaw Judea, but these largely lacked the competency or military power to impose order. Roman authority was highly dependent on local elites, who themselves often lacked the confidence or respect of the Jewish people. On top of this, the population of Judea was divided across lines of class, ethnic, and religious divisions. As a result, the region was highly unstable. Revolutions seemed perpetually around the corner. In May of 66 A.D., rioting amongst the people was met by the heavy-handed overreaction of the Roman procurator Florus, who only further incensed the situation by plundering southwest Jerusalem and killing 3,600 people. As the situation escalated, reinforcements soon arrived from Caesarea, only to be driven out by a rebellion that now spread to the entire region. Jerusalem was taken by Jewish rebels, while Roman strongholds were limited in Judea and Perea. Roman efforts to combat the uprising were led by Vespasian and his son Titus, under orders from the Emperor Nero. The campaign season of 67 A.D. saw Vespasian advance south from Antioch and focus his efforts on subduing Galilee. Field battles were virtually unheard of, given the huge advantage the Romans held, and most of the fighting was concentrated around fortifications. This resulted in particularly brutal treatment of any populations which did not submit immediately. Rome often acted particularly strict to make a point. During the 68 A.D. offensive in Judea, for instance, cities downstream of the Roman army learned of their approach not by messengers, but by the arrival of bodies floating down the Jordan River. The campaign ground to a halt with the news of Nero's death. The anarchy that followed was known as the Year of Four Emperors and included a bid for power by Vespasian on July 1st, 69 A.D. By the summer of 70 A.D., he had come out the victor and set sail for Rome to claim his prize. Titus was left in command of the Judean campaign with instructions to put an end to the Jewish uprising. This, of course, meant the long-delayed assault on Jerusalem, home to the rebel leaders and the heart of the resistance. Titus began the Jerusalem campaign in the spring of 70 A.D. His army of four legions was assembled in Alexandria and marched north to Caesarea along the shoreline. Supporting his force were 23 cohorts of auxiliary infantry, 8 ally of cavalry, and numerous detachments of local troops provided by the region's client rulers. Historical records seem to claim that this force numbered around 60,000 men. These estimates imply that the core legionary troops made up around 35% of the army, the auxiliary troops about 32%, and the remaining local forces about 33%. Such a high proportion of local troops does raise some doubts on the accuracy of our sources. However, we may speculate that local rulers were eager to donate men to the war effort in a political bid to secure Rome's goodwill amidst a bloody revolt. The Roman commanders themselves may also have been eager to have additional troops at their side. While the local forces were surely not as reliable as the crack legionaries, they could take on many responsibilities of the army and thus free up the elite troops to do what they did best. This would be especially important in the upcoming siege of a city as large and well-fortified as Jerusalem. The Roman forces approached Jerusalem in separate marching columns due to the security and supply constraints of the Judean hill country. Titus led both the 12th and 15th legions by the most direct road, while the 5th Macedonica approached via Emmaus and the 10th Fratensis approached via Jericho. On April 23rd, the lead units of the 12th and 15th legions arrived on the hills to the north of the city. That night, the 5th Macedonica arrived and by morning the rest of the army entered the battlefield. Before them lay the great city with gleaming temples and stout battlements. The city of Jerusalem is surrounded on three sides by steep ravines. To the east lies the Kidron Valley, to the west the Gihon Valley, and sweeping around the south is the Hinnom Valley. A series of hills surround the area including the famed Mount of Olives to the east. Ancient Jerusalem itself was built atop several key topographic features. The city incorporated two spurs of land with the Tiruppian Valley in between. Atop the eastern spurs stood the Temple Mount and the Antonia Fortress. The heights of the western spur were occupied by the elites who had built the upper city during the Ashmonian and Herodian periods. In the middle of these two areas sprawled the more ancient and crowded lower city which held most of the population. Both the upper and lower cities were enclosed by a wall which was anchored on the flank by the massive fortifications around the Temple Mount. Inevitably, the population outgrew its bounds and the second city was developed north of the first wall. This exposed position was soon surrounded by a second wall which ran from the Antonia in the east to the Genoth Gate in the west. By the first century AD, yet another suburb had sprung up to the north known as the New City. Once again, expansion necessitated fortifications and in 41 AD Herod Agrippa commissioned the construction of the third wall. This was an ambitious project with massive stone blocks meant to enclose a large area. It seems that the scale of the defensive works raised some suspicion amongst the Romans who forced their client king to abandon the project before its completion. Over the course of the Jewish revolt however, the people of Jerusalem managed to put the finishing touches on their third layer of battlements. By the time the legions arrived outside Jerusalem, the walls had been raised an additional nine meters and a series of square towers were built projecting outwards. The combination of tough terrain and stout walls made for a formidable three-layered defensive network. Additionally, the maze of narrow streets between the fortifications could be easily blockaded while numerous underground water and sewage passages meant that defenders could emerge from any direction for a surprise attack on intruders. Bunkered within this massive fortified city was a garrison of approximately 20,000 Jewish troops. However, these were not professional forces. Rather, they were a motley assortment of militiamen, refugees, and zealots. This composition is a reflection of the thoroughly fractured nature of the Jewish resistance. Since the outbreak of the revolt, an effective, centralized government had failed to take form and the resistance suffered from a chronic failure to synergize its various factions. Jerusalem had been divided along party lines and was tearing itself apart in bloody political infighting right up until the arrival of Roman forces. The principal leaders were Simon Gioras, who lay claim to the upper city, and John of Gishalah, who was based out of the Temple Mount. Simon led the larger of the two forces, which included 10,000 men under 50 officers and 6,000 allied Edomaeans under 8 commanders. These troops garrisoned the first wall from the Kidron all the way to the Palace of the Kings. On the other side of the city, John had an armed following of around 6,000 men under 20 officers and was joined by Eleazar with his 2,400 zealots. These forces held the Temple Mount along with the surrounding neighborhoods including the Ophel and the Tiruppian Valley. Traditional Jewish fighters were lightly armed and armored. They fought at range with slings, bows, and javelins before closing in with spears, swords, and clubs. While agile and determined, they often stood no chance in a straight-up engagement against Roman forces, especially heavy cavalry. However, the Jews in Jerusalem were much better prepared than was typical. They had been amassing equipment from Jewish workshops, Herodian armories, arms dealers, deserters, and defeated enemies. A substantial amount of gear had been gathered from the defeated Romans at Beth Haran, including an array of artillery pieces. In addition, the confused mess of siege warfare would negate many of the advantages a Roman force would enjoy in a field battle. Lastly, it must be said that the morale of the defenders was strengthened by the inevitable survival instincts that took hold when a city resolved to fight or die. While considering the armies is important, we would do well to remember that sieges are battles of attrition. As such, it is necessary to ask about the food and water supplies. Fresh water, at least, was not of immediate concern, owing to the presence of numerous cisterns around the city as well as several massive pools which trapped rainwater. Food, on the other hand, was in short supply. During the infighting that preceded the siege, many of the grain stores had been raided or destroyed by opposing parties. In addition, the already huge population of Jerusalem had swelled to dangerous levels in recent weeks with the arrival of pilgrims celebrating Passover. The non-combatant populace far outnumbered the armed defenders and imposed severe limitations on the length supplies could last. Once the Romans closed in on Jerusalem, the countdown began. The Roman army had undergone a long march to reach Jerusalem. Titus recognized that his men were exhausted and ordered that they construct preliminary camps out of range of the city. The 12th and 15th legions who had arrived from the northeast began to set up a kilometer away, atop Mount Scopus, with another camp planned for the 5th Macedonica, 550 meters further back. As the legions moved into place, Titus rode ahead to personally survey the defenses. On the morning of April 23rd, he set off with 600 horsemen, following the road that led to the main gate of the third wall. However, the terrain was uneven and cluttered with gardens, olive groves, hedges, fences, walls, and stone structures which had been knocked down by the defenders. All of a sudden, Jewish forces burst out of the gate and swarmed the Roman column, cutting it in half. Cavalrymen in the rear bolted out into the open country they had come from. Meanwhile, Titus and his escorts were left behind. The general had neglected to wear his helmet or breastplate for the expedition, but nonetheless drew his sword and led a charge to break out. According to Josephus, he quote, "...diverted those perpetually with his sword that came on his side, overturned many of those that directly met him, and made his horse ride over those that were overthrown." end quote. The encounter was a close call, but ultimately the Romans were able to cut their way through, though they lost several men and left many injured. Titus was likely shaken by the event and eager to get the siege underway. He ordered the 10th Fertensis to move even closer and began constructing entrenchments atop the Mount of Olives. However, the Jews were emboldened by their near success and decided to follow up with a massive assault. Swordies poured out of the eastern and southern gateways, their sights set on the working legionaries. Fighters streamed across the Kidron Valley and descended upon the half-built camp of the 10th Fertensis. The Romans were caught completely off guard. Jewish troops started cutting down their disorganized opponents, while more reinforcements rushed out from the city to complete the route. Titus attacked the flank with his bodyguard, which was enough to force the mob back down the ravine. The 10th Fertensis resumed work, only to come under a second assault from Jews who had been steadily bringing in more and more men. This ferocious attack overwhelmed the Roman force on the low ground. Many of the soldiers fled for the heights, while Titus and a band of troops attempted to hold the line. Soon after, the legionaries regrouped and counter-charged down the hill, driving the Jews back once more. In the ensuing lull, the camp fortifications were finally completed. This secured the Roman forward position, but left everyone with a reminder that the strength of the Jewish defense had been dangerously underestimated. In response, Titus now took precautions against further counter-attacks. He posted cavalry divisions to deflect attacks, and ordered that the ground between the Roman camps and the walls be cleared of all obstructions. This meant cutting down trees, flattening hedges, filling in ditches, and destroying rock projections. This had the dual purpose of removing any cover for Jewish sorties, as well as preparing the ground for siege works. The Roman army had effectively rolled up its sleeves. It was time to get to work. Titus recognized the hardship of attacking from the east, where the ravines were steepest. As a result, he decided to focus on the western flank of the third wall. The 10th Fratensis was left to hold the Mount of Olos, while the three remaining legions were redeployed. The 5th Macedonica built a camp 400 meters west of the western gate, while the 12th and 15th legions established themselves opposite the Saffinus tower. Artillery positions were now deployed with their sights set on the city. Under their covering fire, each legion began constructing an earth and timber ramp up to the third wall. Jewish projectiles rained down from above, and attack parties slowed construction at all times of night and day. However, the concentrated might of the three legions with artillery support proved too much. The attackers completed their ramps, and soon were slowly rolling battering rams into place. The thudding of the rams signaled progress for the Romans, but also served as a rallying cry for the defenders. Militia units from around the city swarmed into place to pelt the crews and their guards with missiles from above, while raiding parties attacked the engines on foot from postern doors. Brave defenders fought their way up to the ramp's protective sheds and were poised to destroy the equipment, before Titus led a cavalry attack to drive them off. Before ramming was resumed, Roman engineers built three siege towers, which were too heavy to be overturned, and which were also fireproofed. These were then rolled into place to provide close fire support for construction and clear the area of defenders. On the fifteenth day of the siege, the rams broke through the third wall. The Jews yielded the outer city to the Romans and withdrew to the second wall. Titus was eager to keep the momentum rolling and established a camp in the heart of the new city, tearing down many structures in the process. The rams were now brought into position once again, and targeted the central tower gate. Within four days, a breach was formed. The legionaries formed up and advanced through the narrow gap, however they were met with an eerie silence. As the troops advanced cautiously through the seemingly deserted streets, they were all of a sudden attacked from all directions. The trap was now sprung and Jews began unleashing barrages of missiles into the dense infantry clusters. At the same time, hit and run parties attacked any exposed troops who had strayed too far from the main body. In shock, the Romans attempted to retreat back through the breach but found that it was so narrow that only a few men could get through at a time. This choke point was a prime target for the bowmen and slingers of the defenders. Roman archer units were brought up to provide covering fire and eased up enough pressure to allow for a withdrawal. At the same time however, the Jewish force was mobilized to surge ahead as the Roman tide receded. They rushed back onto the walls, unloading continual barrages onto the attackers. Meanwhile, sorties with large blocks of Jews pressed the Romans back while the breach was mended. Josephus recalls that the fighting raged all day long and into the night. Action around the tower gate continued and by the fourth day, the legions once again broke through. This time, Titus ordered that the entire northern stretch of the second wall be torn down and the surrounding towers be manned by Roman forces. The Jews now pulled back to the first wall. This was part of a deliberate plan to carry out a fighting retreat against the Romans, conserving Jewish strength while maximizing their damage. The commanders were finally in a position to make a stand now that the defensive line had a much smaller surface area than at the start of the siege. This meant that the outnumbered Jews could far more readily concentrate forces and rebuff attacks. At this point, overall command of the defense had been granted to Simon who held the first wall along the northern side up to the royal palace. Johns, Galileans, and Zealots held the Temple Mount and the Antonia Fortress on the eastern edge of the line. The legions advanced into the second city. Titus dispatched the 10th and 15th legions to raise ramps to the west where the second and first walls met. To the east, he had the 5th and 12th legions start construction against the Antonia Fortress. They did so under incessant sorties and missile attacks. Historians tell us that the Jewish forces at this point would have been able to bring to bear 300 bolt throwers and 40 stone throwers from the rebel armory. This firepower was considerable and must have forced the Romans to build their own protective countermeasures. On the 29th of May, after 17 days of intense labor and non-stop harassment, the Romans completed their attack paths up to the eastern and western flanks. Battering rams, siege towers, and numerous cohorts were brought up for an all-out assault. However, unbeknownst to the Romans, the Jewish forces had been hard at work themselves. They had secretly conducted sapping operations with a tunnel traveling under the first wall right up to the siege ramps against the Antonia. The excavations were supported by pit props, which the Jews set alight. As the fire took its course, the ground gave way and a huge chasm opened up, engulfing the ramps and their siege engines. Fires, which were temporarily smothered, erupted once more as the bitumen reignited and burned what remained of the equipment. The Romans had once again fatally underestimated the defenders and were reaping the consequences. To the west, Simon sallied out at night to attack the siege works in his sector of the battlefield. The brave rebels beat back resistance and fought their way to the rams, setting their sheds alight. The fires alarmed the legionaries who saw their hard work going up in smoke and rushed in to try and pull the rams out of harm's way. They were met by Jewish reinforcements streaming out from postured gates and a pitched battle ensued. A deadly tug of war followed over the rams, with the rebels finally managing to complete their destruction. The demoralized Romans pulled back. Sensing an opportunity, the Jewish forces swarmed out of the city in pursuit, driving the legions all the way back to their camp. The retreat was stabilized when once again, Titus rode to the rescue with his cavalry. Fierce fighting ensued, but the rebels were finally pushed back to the first wall. The Roman siege lines were in shambles. Virtually all of their rams and ramps were a smoldering ruin by morning, and the morale of the legions must have been in a similar state. It was approaching the hottest part of the year now, water was running low, and building material was becoming increasingly hard to come by. Nonetheless, Titus launched an ambitious plan to restore the spirit and security of the men. His plan called for the construction of an 8km wall of circumvallation with 13 forts. To do this, he leveraged the proud nature of the troops by having the legions and cohorts challenge one another for the honor of being the first to complete their allotted portion of the wall. Relatively safe from Jewish attacks, the legionaries were free to reforge their unit cohesion through competitive labor. The result was a stunning success. Within three days, the entire structure was completed. Morale amongst the Romans was restored, while the Jews were left with the stunning sign that the Roman war machine wasn't backing down. If anything, things had just shifted into high gear. With the completion of the wall of circumvallation, the noose around Jerusalem was finally pulled tight. Previously, citizens had been able to slip out at night to collect supplies from the countryside, but now this proved impossible. Any rebels caught outside the walls were crucified, as a terrifying example of Rome's wrath, while even those who defected willingly were often gutted by troops who believed their stomachs would be filled with precious items ingested for concealment. Inside, the food situation rapidly deteriorated. The defenders were reduced to eating pets and boiling hay. Disturbing reports also mentioned instances of infantile cannibalism taking place. Now in the tenth week of the siege, Titus ordered all forces to concentrate their assault on the Antonia Fortress. The full-scale assault began with the mobilization of archers and artillery to suppress the walls, while two battering rams moved into position and men armed with crowbars took aim at the foundation blocks of the towers. Despite great efforts made the first day, the Romans were forced to withdraw for the night without making any noticeable gains. Unbeknownst to both sides, however, the heavy activity in the area took a toll on the structural stability of the fortress. The mine, which had previously brought down the Roman siege ramps, had also undermined the Antonia. A heavy rain, combined with the pressure of the men and the machinery at work, provided the straw that broke the camel's back. In the dead of night, the northern wall of the fortress collapsed. At first light, the Romans positioned themselves for a direct assault through the breach. Once again, however, the Jews were one step ahead and had already constructed another, secondary wall on the other side. Unwilling to give up the nighttime gift, Titus asked for volunteers to tackle the fortifications head-on. A handful of brave men volunteered, no doubt encouraged by the promise of rich reward. This gang took heavy fire as they ran up to the barricade but managed to scramble over the top. The attackers proved too few and, with no reinforcements on the way, were inevitably slaughtered. The failure of this mission and full sight of the Roman army sapped their will to fight. A tentative stalemate ensued. Two days later, in the early morning, 24 enterprising Romans, including a standard bear, from the 5th Macedonica, and a trumpeter, decided to attack on their own initiative. The men silently climbed the ruins of the Antonia Fortress and slit the throats of the sentries. With the barricade now secured, the trumpeter sounded a signal. This blast within the walls threw the Jews into a panic as they jolted awake from their sleep. Imagining that the entire Roman army was upon them, they fled to the Temple Mount. Meanwhile, the Roman command was equally confused but knew something had to be done. Titus, along with his officers, collected picked men from the units and immediately sent them towards the sound of the trumpet. When the Jews realized that the Romans were not hot on their heels, cooler heads prevailed and they rallied. Militias streamed into the courtyard as it soon became apparent that the real Roman forces would now certainly be on their way. If they gained a foothold in the sanctuary, all was lost. Both sides realized that this was the passages linking the Antonia to the Temple Mount. Brutal fighting occurred in the close quarter confines that dragged on for nearly 10 hours. In the end, the fury of the Jews, fed by constant reinforcements, prevailed over the Romans who sounded the retreat, thus ending the first battle of the Temple. Titus ordered the men to raise the Antonia on his side of the battle lines and within a week was ready to renew the attack. 7,200 legionaries, picked from 30 of the best troops from each century, were mustered at night on July 17th. These men silently shuffled towards the ruins of the Antonia for a surprise attack. Jewish sentries, however, picked up on the advance and sounded the alarm. In some areas, Roman forces were able to cut their way past the previous week's high water mark. However, in the obscurity of the night, chaos reigned. This was made even worse by the fact that the rebels had equipped themselves with captured Roman gear to the point that many legionaries and Jewish units ended up bumping into and fighting friendly forces. The combat was so confused that it proved virtually impossible to capitalize on any gains either side made. When the sun eventually began to rise, some degree of order was finally restored. Josephus reports that both sides now separated and drew up into ragged battle lines at the edges of the sanctuary's northern edge. Missiles began to fly, and a savage pitched battle developed. Titus attempted to orchestrate an organized attack, but the tight confines again rendered this futile. By midday, it became apparent that no gains would be made, and the second battle of the temple was called off. Clearly, it would be impossible to punch a hole through the Jewish bottleneck. Titus thus resolved to broaden the scale of the attack. In the peak of the summer heat, he ordered four more ramps to be built against the northwestern corner of the temple mount. In response, the Jews massed their missiles at the walls and sent forth continuous waves of skirmishers and sorties to harass the work crews. Nonetheless, the legion steadily made progress. With the work nearing completion, the defenders tore down the northwestern corner of the temple colonnade, severing connection between the defensive parapets and the remaining elements of the Antonia. This effectively removed a key avenue the Romans were hoping to use as an attack route. At the same time, a major sally was attempted against the Roman wall of circumvallation at the Mount of Olives. Though unsuccessful, this assault once again attested to the boldness of the defenders. A cornered beast was certainly a force to be reckoned with. On the 27th of July, Roman work parties building a ramp against the broken end of the western colonnade spotted an opportunity. It appeared that Jewish activity on the other fronts had caused a withdrawal of defensive forces in the area. The legions rushed forward with ladders for an immediate assault by escalade. Hundreds of troops now swarmed onto the undefended walls with many more following behind them. However, the Jewish retreat had been a trap. In the previous days, they had secretly filled the rafters with dry wood and bitumen, which they now set alight. The entire sector of the wall burst into flames with the Roman assault troops caught in the inferno. This occurred in sight of both armies and provided a tremendous morale boost to the defenders. The Romans proved wary of another escalade assault and instead tried to breach the walls with rams and picks. For days, they worked around the clock in relays to undermine the defensive fortifications. They did so under a continuous bombardment of missiles and harassment. Eventually, several huge blocks were pried loose but the thick construction of the Temple Mount defied all attempts at destruction. Titus must have been unimaginably frustrated. Desperate for results, he ordered another storming of the walls. The results were predictably bloody. Roman troops climbing the ladders were dangerously exposed. Many found themselves toppled in their attempts to scale the walls while others finally managed to reach the top under continual artillery and archery covering fire only to be left isolated. Those that did make it up were vastly outnumbered and slaughtered. Roman centurions resorted to throwing legionary eagles onto the walls in a bid to motivate the proud soldiers to retrieve them. However, even this desperate measure proved fruitless and only resulted in the death of even more bull-headed attackers. The increasingly costly assault was abandoned. Rather than abandon all hope, Titus made preparations for yet another attack on the temple in the beginning of August. The objective would be to finally push through the bottleneck at the Antonia and move out onto the open spaces of the courtyard where the legions would gain the necessary space to fight effectively. Archers and artillery were massed in and around the ruins of the Antonia. These began to target the defenders holding out at the north end of the temple complex. Once they had cleared, Roman troops burnt out and tore down the entire northern colonnade. This would allow the attackers to deploy along the entire width of the plaza while at the same time stripping away a crucial Jewish defensive position. While the northern battlements were now destroyed, sight lines were opened up onto the other flanking battlement positions. The defenders stationed here found themselves dangerously exposed and were forced to pull back. The Jewish line of defense was reformed and now cut across the center of the temple mount, with the temple itself serving as a central bastion. It is around this time that the gravest of ill omens took place. This spiritual crisis involved the daily sacrifice of lamb to Yahweh. Like clockwork, the priests had upheld the holy rite of Tamed amidst the bloodshed and starvation of the siege. But on the 5th of August, the last of the sacrificial lambs ran out. Now, at the height of the siege, with the Romans advancing, the Jews lost their connection to God. The stage was now set for a fight over the very heart of Jerusalem, the temple mount. The left end of the ragged Jewish line was stationed at the western gate with access to the upper city. The right flank was anchored on the opposite side of the colonnade at Solomon's portico. The center of the line ran through the temple and its inner court. The Romans held the north, the Jews the south. Both sides were prepared for a fateful duel within the enormous gladiatorial arena that was the temple mount complex. In the center of the battlefield was the linchpin of the Jewish defenses, the inner temple. Just like the temple mount, the temple was surrounded by a wall with wide fighting platforms atop a series of perimeter colonnades. The eastern half of the compound was known as the court of women. This was then connected to the western half by another wall and the Corinthian gate. On the other side lay the court of the Israelites, and beyond that, the court of the priests. At the very end lay the Holy of Holies, a 45 meter tall white marble edifice adorned with enormous golden gates and topped by golden points. This was said to be the very house of God in which only the high priests entered on the day of atonement. In fact, the entire inner temple was normally off limits to all but a select few. Extraordinary circumstances, however, call for extraordinary measures, and the holy spaces today were packed with defenders. Despite being exhausted and on the verge of starvation, the Jews attacked at dawn on August 9th. Troops burst out of the eastern gate and rushed the Roman lines in force. The surprised legions reeled from the punch but managed to hold their ground. Once more, Titus had his cavalry mount up and charge across the open ground. The small group of horses crashed into the Jewish mob, sending shockwaves through the mass of men. However, the attack failed to dissuade the rebels, and the third battle of the temple began. This engagement was characterized by a confused series of attacks and counterattacks along the eastern end of the sanctuary. Jewish defenders offered supporting fire from atop the nearby temple rooftops, while their Roman counterparts did the same from their own rear lines. The fighting raged on for several hours before subsiding into an uneasy stalemate. The following day, August 10th, the Jews again launched an attack on the Romans holding the outer court, initiating the fourth battle of the temple. The engagement was similarly hard-fought, but the crush of a Roman counterattack managed to drive the defenders right up to the temple walls itself. Here, Jews atop the walls dislodged stones and threw down an assortment of projectiles onto the Romans. However, in the close press below, a pair of legionaries were seized by impulse. One grabbed a piece of flaming debris while the other hoisted him up against the north side of the temple. From this elevation, he lobbed the burning timber through a low golden door into the sanctuary chambers. In the summer heat, the highly flammable timbers and textiles took light. Thick, black smoke billowed into the air as fire spread rapidly to the stunned amazement of both sides. The fire rapidly spiraled out of control, threatening to consume the countless sacred texts and treasures within the temple. The Jews were left paralyzed between choosing to fight the flames or the Romans. The legions seized on the initiative and plunged forward without orders. They battered down the eastern gates and penetrated the inner court of the temple. In this moment, at the climax of a grueling three-month siege, the attackers gave way to their bestial nature. Soldiers broke free from their officers, controlled only by a toxic, psychological state of repressed rage and frustration. Pity was the first casualty, soon followed by a butchery of all those who did not flee the hellscape. The young, the old, the helpless. All were put to the sword. This bloodlust would only be matched in intensity by greed. Roman soldiers plunged into the flaming complex, intent on making off with treasures inside. The frenzy reached a fever pitch where Roman troops were being trampled to death by their comrades. The arrival of Titus seemed to have little effect on the state of the men. This was often a natural occurrence in the final stages of a siege when even the ablest of commanders could do nothing to restrain the wild passions of soldiers. Eventually, the delirium subsided when the temple was picked clean by both men and flames. Chants of Imperator, Imperator, Imperator greeted Titus as he ordered the sacrifice of an ox, a sheep, and a pig at the eastern gate of the temple. With this move, he consummated the domination of the Roman gods over that of the Jews. Though the temple mount had fallen, Jewish resistance in the rest of Jerusalem had not. Simon's militia and those who had escaped the smoldering ruins of the temple regrouped atop the entrenched positions in the upper city and Herod's palace. From here, they faced off against legions across the Tyrrhapean valley. A parley was held atop a bridge linking the two sides. The Jewish commanders, Simon and John, attempted to bargain for their free passage out of Jerusalem. Titus, however, was emboldened by his recent victory and demanded no less than an unconditional surrender. When talks broke down, the legions were unleashed on the lower city in a demonstration of force. For two days, they hacked their way through tight alleys and rooftops, cutting down rebels and non-combatants alike. Fires were also set to clear out any survivors from the lower districts. The flames did tremendous damage to life and property. They also engulfed vast quantities of dead bodies in various stages of decay, filling the air with a horrid stench. All that remained now was the last stronghold of Herod's palace. This fortress was dominated by strong walls and a ring of towers ranging from 25 to 40 meters tall. In addition, the buildings of the upper city blocked a clear line of approach while numerous underground passages could allow the Jews to carry out effective sorties against incoming siege works. The Rones had faced significant trouble against similar defenses already and were not eager to try it once more. Instead, the attackers opted to mount their assault from the west, flanking from outside the walls of Jerusalem. All four legions now massed in the Hinnom Valley and began construction of a final set of siege ramps. Allied and auxiliary troops within Jerusalem also set to work on their own platforms against the upper city located at the viaduct, the gymnasium, and Simon's Tower. Resources and manpower for the Romans were extremely sparse. This delayed construction to a degree, but the projects were inevitably completed by the end of two and a half weeks. On September 7th, the Romans were able to bring up the remaining rams and begin battering down the walls. The Jewish forces at this point were so weakened that for the first time they did not lead sorties out against the siege equipment. Defenders attempted to offer resistance from the top of the walls but were easily swept aside by mass fire of Roman projectiles. Sections of the western wall began to crumble. Legionaries punched their way through the breaches against a defensive force that was quickly disintegrating. It seems that the reality of a final defeat swept in with the Roman troops and captured the battlements more quickly than any sword could. The high towers of the Hippicus, the Phaseo, and the Miriam were all abandoned as survivors either gave in to the inevitable or went to ground. The Jewish leaders along with groups of dedicated fighters ran in all directions desperately seeking to find a way through the Roman lines. Many were caught by Roman street patrols while others resorted to crawling through sewers or even attempted to tunnel their way out of the city. In the end, both Simon and John were captured alive. They along with 700 other young men would be sent to Rome to be put on full display for the eventual triumph of Titus. All remaining males of the age of 17 and above were shackled and sentenced to death either in the mines of Egypt or in the gladiatorial arenas around the empire. The women and children were taken to the slave markets. All told, we have no accurate figures for how many lives were extinguished or enslaved as a result of the sacking of Jerusalem. Josephus would have us believe that over 1.1 million were killed while Tacitus offers a more plausible 600,000. These numbers both seem wildly inflated but may be an indication of the carnage that took place when Titus resolved on destroying a highly populated city filled with refugees and pilgrims. We have only to look at the modern sieges like Stalingrad to imagine the horrors which befell the numerous non-combatants trapped within the walls. Back in Rome, Emperor Vespasian was busy preparing the stage for the honorable return of his son. The victory at Jerusalem warranted a triumph and would be used as a centerpiece for the legitimization of the Flavian dynasty. When the time came, Titus would parade down the streets of Rome atop a chariot at the head of a procession glorifying the conquests in the east. Soldiers and captives marched down the streets in full regalia alongside floats depicting dramatic scenes from the campaign. Vast amounts of treasure were also on display including the great seven branch menorah. The crowning moment of the festivities involved the flaying and ritual strangulation of Simon Gioras who had served as the overall commander of the Jewish forces during the siege. While the revolt may have been symbolically crushed, Jewish resistance would burn on until the final Roman suppression of Masada in 73 AD. Though this would bring about the conclusion of the first Jewish revolt, there would be several more to follow, each with increasing levels of devastation. The siege of Jerusalem stands out as one of the most brutal examples of classical era total war since the fall of Carthage 200 years earlier. Humans did this. Hundreds of thousands of babies cradled by mothers grew up through millions of unique experiences only to find themselves all at Jerusalem. Each of their stories worthy of its own novel unraveled one way or another over these three months and have, through the great filter of history, been reduced to a reference in this very sentence. I don't think you or I or our species has the capacity to truly understand this. In the end, perhaps all we can do is take the time to pause and reflect. As we do this, we can, in a way, commune with our ancestors who did the same. At Carthage, for instance, it is said that Scipio and Melianus weepingly looked over the flames which engulfed the city, imagining that one day such flames would be seen over Rome itself. At Jerusalem, we can imagine that Titus was also seized by similar thoughts. Today, I am sure, we can also bow our heads humbly and reflect upon the destruction we reap across the world which may one day return to our own homes.