Mongol invasion in Russia | Battle of Kulikovo 1380 | Russian Orthodox Army against the Mongols

Russia's history is long and full of upheavals, but it's only ever been fully conquered once, and that was by the Mongols. Because of this invasion, the Russian historian Nikolai Karamzin developed the idea of Russia lagging behind the enlightened Europe. He put it bluntly, saying, We have our own Charlemagne, Vladimir, our own Louis XI, Tsar Ivan, and our own Cromwell, Godunov. To Karamzin, Russia's story was intertwined with Europe's, almost as a mirror of So, in his view, the Tatars, who were actually the Mongols, were barbarians. He argued that the civilized Roman yoke over the previously conquered barbarian tribes was similar to the yoke the Mongols had imposed on the Russian people, rendering them inferior. Why did this happen? In fact, before the Mongols invaded, Russia didn't have any deep political or cultural ties with the Mongol tribes in Central Asia. However, the Russian principalities had long had dealings with other nomadic peoples from the steppes, like the Cumans, also known as Kipchaks, and the Pechenegs. These tribes lived to the south and southeast of Russia and were sometimes allies and other times enemies, creating a tense border zone between the Russian states and the nomadic steppes. At first, the Mongols were just one of many nomadic alliances in Central Asia, but as they unified and expanded their empire in the 13th century, they began pushing west, reaching as far as Kievan Rus. The conquest began in 1237, with major Russian principalities like Vladimir, Suzdal, and Kiev falling one by one to the Mongols. By 1240, after the fall of Kiev, the Mongols had taken control of nearly all the Russian territories, marking the first time Russia fell under the rule of a nomadic power. And that's when we first learned about Tatar Yoke. Under the Tatar Yoke of the Golden Horde, Russia's key trade routes were heavily controlled, dealing a serious blow to the economy. Important trade routes, like the one from Novgorod to Constantinople, a vital artery linking Russia to European and Mediterranean markets, were restricted. Other routes, like the east-west corridor from Moscow to the Black and Caspian Seas, which connected Russia with merchants from the Ottoman Empire and Asia, and the famous Silk Road, which linked Russia with China, Central Asia, and Persia, were also impacted. In particular, the Mongols not only levied taxes, but also restricted certain strategic commodities, especially military raw materials, such as precious metals, in order to prevent the Russian principalities from accumulating wealth and strengthening their weapons. With the Mongols holding much of this network, Russia was cut off from crucial trade and cultural exchange with the east. Not only was Russia's international trade impacted, but internal trade between principalities like Tver, Vladimir, and Novgorod also faced serious obstacles. The Mongols imposed various internal taxes, setting up toll stations along key routes that stifled trade between Russian states. This uneven, disrupted commerce made it hard for them to build a unified economy. Because Russian resources were diverted to pay tribute and maintain power under Mongol control, the principalities couldn't invest in education, schools, or art centers. While other European countries experienced cultural and intellectual movements, like the Renaissance, Russian states were cut off from these new waves of knowledge. Yet the Mongols had little interest in ruling directly or settling in Russia. They only demanded tribute and money and men for their military. Russian princes became subject of the Khan, providing troops for Mongol campaigns into Byzantium, Lithuania, and the Caucasus. These princes even lost the right to decide who ruled and who was dethroned, causing power struggles and political instability. Principalities like Kiev, Novgorod, and Vladimir drifted apart, competing for Mongol favor and recognition. This state of chaos went on for nearly a century, up until the late 14th century, with the powerful Golden Horde that ruled most of Eastern Europe and Russian principalities was in complete disarray. After the death of the Golden Horde's Khan, Jani Beg, in 1357, everything began to spiral. For nearly twenty years, from 1359 to 1381, the Horde was consumed by internal wars, with one leader replacing another in quick succession, none able to hold power for long. This era became known as the Great Troubles. It was pure chaos, political structures were crumbling, and armies struggled just to maintain order. In distant regions, like the Russian principalities, things were even worse, as central authority practically abandoned them. Now, this is where Mamai enters the scene. Mamai wasn't just another warlord in the Golden Horde. He was a Beklerbeg, which is basically a military governor, in Crimea and along the northern shores of the Black Sea. While the central authority was crumbling around him, Mamai was busy carving out his own territory. By the 1370s, he had stretched his control across a vast area from Crimea all the way up to the Volga River. This region was incredibly valuable, serving as a key junction for trade routes that linked Europe, the Middle East, and Central Asia. Because of this, Mamai gained significant economic power. It's really no surprise that his expansion went largely unchallenged by the central government, after all, the successor Khans were typically in power for only short stints. Mamai was smart to take advantage of the chaos. Despite his rising power, Mamai struggled to claim the title of Khan due to his lack of descent from Genghis Khan, a crucial factor in Mongol tradition. To circumvent this, he placed an eight-year-old boy, Muhammad Bolak, on the throne. Muhammad, from the Mongol nobility, provided the legitimacy Mamai needed. But, of course, at just eight years old, that boy wasn't capable of ruling anything. Mamai was the one pulling the strings. He used the boy as a puppet Khan while he wielded all the real power behind the scenes. After solidifying his power in Crimea and the western regions of the Golden Horde, Mamai turned his attention toward the northeastern Russian principalities. These areas had been paying tribute to the Golden Horde all this time, signaling their submission to the Khans. But things were starting to shift. With the Mongol Horde's grip loosening, Russian principalities, especially Moscow, started sensing new opportunities. Moscow used the rivalry among other principalities to its advantage, steadily growing as a hub for trade and politics. Leaders in Moscow were savvy, skillfully managing their relationship with the Mongols and presenting themselves as loyal subject. Even earlier princes like Ivan I and Ivan II received the title of the Grand Prince of the entire Rus from the Mongols, not only giving them authority to collect taxes across Rus on behalf of the Mongol Empire, but also consolidated Moscow's position as the Mongols' preferred ally. But things really started to shift under Dmitry Donskoy's rule. Unlike his predecessors, Dmitry and his advisors began taking steps to reduce their reliance on the Mongol Khanate that would eventually set Moscow on the path toward independence. Mamai realized that to exert control over the entire Golden Horde, he had to keep the Russian principalities under his domination and ensure they continued to provide tribute because these tribute payments from Russia were vital for funding his military campaigns. So, in 1371, Mamai decided to make a risky move to tighten his grip over the Russian lands. He granted the title of Grand Prince of Vladimir to Prince Mikhail II of Tver. Now, you might wonder why he chose Mikhail out of everyone. Well, Mikhail was a fierce rival of Prince Dmitry Donskoy of Moscow. By handing Mikhail this title, Mamai hoped to stir up even more division among the Russian principalities and weaken Moscow's growing influence. Plus, Mamai believed that Mikhail could deliver more tribute than the others, which was obviously crucial for Mamai's plans. But honestly, this turned out to be a major misstep. See, for Dmitry, the title of Grand Prince of Vladimir wasn't just any title, it was the ultimate symbol of power among the Russian princes. Mamai's move was a clear challenge to Moscow's authority, and Dmitry had no intention of letting it slide. Therefore, the clash between Moscow and Tver was inevitable, and let me tell you, Moscow didn't hold back. Dmitry's army was strong, well-organized, and bankrolled by the wealth Moscow had accumulated through tributes from other principalities. Tver, on the other hand, was in a tough spot. Mikhail had been counting on support from the Mongols, but when none came, Tver's chances of victory were slim. In the end, Moscow crushed Tver, forcing Mikhail not only to give up his title of Grand Prince, but also to acknowledge Moscow as the dominant power in the region. He even had to agree to support Moscow in the event of a future Mongol invasion. This was a pivotal moment in the history of the Russian principalities. For the first time since the Mongol conquest, a Rus prince was making major decisions independently of the Khan in Saray, the Golden Horde's capital. It was a clear sign that Moscow was now strong to stand its ground against both its domestic rivals and the Mongols. So, Prince Dmitry decided to go all in. In 1374, he made a bold, risky decision. He straight up refused to pay tribute to Mamai. Now, you and I both know that challenging a Mongol ruler like that was playing with fire, but Dmitry wasn't acting on a whim. He could see that Mamai was in trouble. The Horde was in chaos, with power struggles left and right, and Mamai's finances were hurting. Dmitry probably figured that Mamai wasn't strong enough anymore to make Moscow keep paying. So, Mamai wasn't going to let Dmitry's defiance slide. By 1375, he was under serious pressure. Constant fighting to maintain his power was draining his resources. You know how expensive wars can be, right? He really needed those tribute payments to keep things running. So, he decided to send an ambassador to Moscow, along with a thousand soldiers, hoping to persuade Dmitry to pay up. However, Dmitry refused, keeping the tribute from other principalities for himself and bolstering Moscow's military. This blatant defiance was a direct challenge to Mamai's authority. In retaliation, he launched an attack in 1378, sending 10,000 troops led by Murzabegish to Moscow, leading to the Battle of the Voza River. Despite being outnumbered, Dmitry's strategic use of the river allowed his 5,000 soldiers to achieve a decisive victory, marking a one of the first significant moment in Russia's struggle for independence. But after the defeat at the Voza River, Mamai realized he needed stronger allies if he wanted to have a shot at defeating Moscow. That's when he decided to forge alliances with the princes of Lithuania and Ryazan, effectively surrounding Dmitry with hostile powers on all sides, almost like casting a net over Moscow. Now, you might wonder why he chose Lithuania and Ryazan. Well, it all boils down to history and strategy. As you know, during the Tatar Yoke, many Russian principalities were at odds with one another, especially Moscow and Ryazan. In fact, back in 1300, Moscow seized the important city of Kolomna from Ryazan, and the Prince of Ryazan was killed after years in captivity. This created some serious bad blood between the two principalities. On the flip side, Lithuania was also on the rise, expanding its territory and directly competing with Moscow for dominance over regions like Tver. Between 1368 and 1372, Lithuania launched three campaigns against Moscow, making them natural allies in any effort to weaken Dmitry's power. So, you can see that each of them had their own reasons for opposing Moscow. During the time the Mongols and their allies were planning, Dmitry's scouts played a crucial role in the unfolding events. They proved to be highly skilled and effective at gathering intelligence on Mamai's movements and how he was coordinating his forces. They brought back some troubling news. Mamai's army already outnumbered Dmitry's, even before the Lithuanian and Ryazan reinforcements had arrived. Not wanting to waste any time, in June 1380, Dmitry Donskoy immediately called to arms to all of his allies, Princes of Belusero, Jogaila, his rebellious brothers Andrey of Polotsk and Dmitry of Bryansk, Prince Vladimir of Serpukhov, and began consolidating his forces at Kolomna. At the same time, the armies of Lithuania, Ryazan and Mamai were marching on Moscow from three sides. Mamai led his own army from the south. The Lithuanian forces approached Moscow from the west and the Ryazan came from the east. Their plan was to meet together on the south side of the Don River, near a place called Kulikovo, then making the final push towards Moscow. So now, after got the news from Moscow's scouts that Mamai's army encamped south of the Don River, the Grand Prince of Moscow was faced with a critical strategic decision. He had two options- wait and defend behind the Don River, preparing to face the combined strength of his enemies, or cross the Don and attacking Mamai's forces before reinforcements from Lithuania and Ryazan could arrive. Finally, he chose to fight rather than defend. Late on the night of September 7th, under a thick morning fog, the Russian army crossed the Don River. By the early hours of the next day, as the fog began to lift, the troops started to form their battle lines. Dmitry Donskoy's army was strategically arranged into three lines, each serving a crucial purpose. Imagine standing alongside his forces. At the front, scouts acted as the eyes of the army, tasked with spotting the Mongol approach and engaging in minor skirmishes to slow them down. Behind them was the main infantry regiment, equipped with a Tsolitsy, short spears ideal for throwing, and sturdy shields made from wood and metal. Their armor included the bazooband for arm protection and greaves for the shins, preparing them for Mongol assaults. At the center stood Dmitry's elite guard, a mix of heavy cavalry and infantry. These heavily armored cavalrymen wore chainmail and wielded sabers and maces, ideal for close combat. Dmitry also deployed smaller flanking detachments to prevent Mongol surprises. A secret weapon lay hidden in an oak grove, an elite cavalry unit led by Prince Vladimir of Serpukhov. This unit was poised to launch a surprise attack when the Mongols became overextended, turning the tide of battle in Dmitry's favor. Right behind the front lines was the core of Dmitry Donskoy's army, his personal guard, which included both infantry and heavy cavalry. Before Mongol rule, horses were a luxury in Russia. However, the Mongols' battlefield dominance led Russians to realize they needed their own cavalry. By the 13th to 15th centuries, professional cavalry units emerged from the elite warrior class. These soldiers, drawn from wealthy noble families, were equipped with the necessary horses and gear, marking a significant evolution in Russian military tactics and preparing them for the challenges of Mongol warfare. That morning, the Mongol army was still fatigued from their long march and not particularly skilled in scouting. It quickly became evident to them that the Russians were preparing for battle. Under Mamai's command, they moved to confront the enemy. The Mongol force far outnumbered the combined armies of the Russian princes, comprising a regular army, unlike the Russians, who still operated at a guard level. Mamai organized his troops into three lines. The first line consisted of light Mongol-Tatar cavalry, agile and quick, intended for harassment and skirmishes. The second line delivered the heavy firepower, featuring cavalry and Genoese infantry armed with crossbows. The third line was a mix of Mongol cavalry and infantry, with auxiliary regiments positioned to guard the flanks. Mamai observed from a hilltop, strategically placed for command and protection. His warriors were battle-ready from a young age, mastering archery, horse-riding, and various weapons, with speed being their hallmark. They used composite bows, allowing them to shoot accurately while galloping, with each archer carrying multiple bows and arrows tailored for different situations. The Mongols' remarkable agility and tactical organization made them a formidable force on the battlefield. Dimitri's army was estimated to be around 30,000 men, but the Mongol force was much larger, likely numbering between 40,000 to 50,000 warriors. That's a big difference, and it gave the Mongols a clear advantage in terms of sheer numbers. The battle kicked off when Mamai's advanced troops charged straight into the first line of Russian sentries, with support from crossbow fire coming from the Genoese mercenaries behind them. It was quick, fierce, and brutal. The Mongols had the numbers though, and eventually, Dimitri's first line had to fall back, but they did so slowly and in good order, retreating to regroup with the advance regiments stationed right behind them. Seeing this unfold, Mamai sent his second wave forward, which included the Genoese heavy infantry in the center. That's when the real brutal, hand-to-hand combat began. Thousands of soldiers were clashing, swinging all kinds of weapons, trying desperately to avoid getting hit from every direction. It was chaos. As the fight raged on, the Russian left flank, which was weaker, started to bend and give way little by little. Mamai noticed this right away and seized the moment, ordering his Mongol light cavalry to charge and hit the eastern side of the Russian line. In response, the Russian commander on the left flank pushed forward a bit, trying to threaten the Mongol cavalry without fully committing, knowing that if he stretched too far, the whole left side could expose too much. But despite the Russian's best efforts, the pressure from both the Mongol infantry and that cavalry charge was just too much. The second Russian line couldn't hold on and had to retreat, this time merging with the main regiment where Dimitri himself was holding position. At this point, Mamai probably thought this was the moment the battle would be decided. Spotting Dimitri's personal banner on the field, Mamai sent in his heavy cavalry, aiming straight for Dimitri's position. His plan was clear, take out the leader, and the battle would be over. What followed was an enormous, brutal brawl, with both sides fully locked in ferocious medieval combat, each trying to get the upper hand. It was a life or death struggle across the battlefield. The battle was so fierce that it transformed the ground into a bloody swamp, with countless men from both sides falling in the chaos. Even amidst the turmoil, the Mongol commander kept a strong reserve force ready for this crucial moment. Believing the entire Russian line was engaged, he ordered his last reserve to charge the exposed left flank of the Russians. The Mongol cavalry thundered across the battlefield, crashing into the vulnerable side of Dimitri's army. At this point, his troops were already weary, and this brutal flanking attack pushed them to their breaking point. Just when it looked like the battle was about to turn into a Mongol triumph, a cavalry trumpet sounded from the eastern edge of the field. Out of the woods came the ambush regiment led by Prince Vladimir, charging in at the perfect moment. Their timing was impeccable, catching the Mongols completely by surprise. The fresh, elite cavalrymen slammed into the unprotected flanks of the Mongol forces, igniting panic among their ranks. The Russians, filled with newfound courage, pursued the retreating horde for nearly 50 kilometers while Mamai barely escaped with his life. Casualties were heavy on both sides, though exact numbers remain a mystery. Dimitri's army likely lost about a third of their strength, while the Mongol forces faced a devastating defeat. But even as Dimitri celebrated this hard-won victory, trouble loomed on the horizon. Another formidable Mongol warlord was already preparing to strike. After hearing about Mamai's defeat, Prince Jogaila returned to Lithuania, while the Ryazan people aggressively attacked the retreating detachments, plundering them and taking prisoners. Prince Dimitri of Moscow prepared for a counterattack, but a significant shift occurred when Prince Oleg of Ryazan fled, causing the Ryazan boyars to welcome Moscow's governors. Upon his return, Oleg had to recognize Dimitri's authority, referring to him as Meanwhile, Muqammad Bolak, Mamai's puppet Khan, was killed in battle. Mamai fled to the Genoese stronghold of Kaffa in Crimea, hoping to regroup. However, his support dwindled without a legitimate Khan, leading many of his nobles to defect to his rival, Tokhtamysh. Eventually, Mamai was killed in Kaffa, marking the collapse of his horde. Tokhtamysh emerged as the dominant power, ending the 20-year split within the Golden Horde. Now, let's talk about Prince Dimitri, who became known as Donskoy, of the Don, after the battle, did not manage to become fully independent from the Golden Horde. However, the victory at Kulikovo marked the beginning of the decline of Mongol power. In the century that followed, Moscow's influence grew, consolidating control over other Russian principalities. This gradual shift culminated in 1480, when Russia finally broke free from the Golden Horde after defeating them at the Great Stand on the Ugra River.