Ancient Athens and the Golden Age of Greece

In 460 BC, after the Persians left Athens, a leader emerged who would enable the city to reach cultural and militaristic heights. His name was Pericles, and he is credited not only with major democratic reforms, but in rebuilding a powerful army and creating some of the greatest monuments of all time. Under Pericles' 30-year rule, the acropolis the Persians destroyed was rebuilt in a glorious manner. Its principal building was the great Parthenon, but the hill was filled with dozens of smaller temples, each a masterpiece of design and execution. Pericles led the city through a golden age which would make the name of Athens immortal. This was the era of artists like the sculptor Phidias, the time when philosophers like Socrates and Plato sought eternal truths. This was when Sophocles and Euripides created western drama. The foundations were laid for almost every aspect of modern western civilization, even sport. Though Pericles succumbed to a deadly plague which decimated a quarter of the Athenian population, his accomplishments live on. Athens was the pinnacle of a dynamic which had been building for thousands of years. Greece is a land of contrasting, often spectacular landscapes. The ancient Greeks believed its woods and waters were populated by gods and goddesses and other supernatural creatures of every kind. In fact, the land was inhabited by a surprising range of very real creatures. The first people who came here arrived nearly 2,000 years before Christ at the beginning of the Bronze Age. They belonged to a branch of the great Indo-European stock that migrated from the vast plain stretching from Europe to Asia. The earliest Greeks were tribes of warriors who spoke the same language but fought incessantly, struggling for possession of the richest and most fertile land. The first settlements were primitive rural communities. Then between 1500 and 1200 BC there was a general population boom. Magnificent palaces arose. They were an appropriate setting for mythical and legendary stories like those from the poet Homer and adventure yarns like The Voyage of the Argonauts and The Trials of Heracles. Many of these stories are more fiction than fact, but one was thought to be real. Homer's epic tale, The Iliad, which told of the war of the Greeks against Troy. Troy was the city that fell to a horse filled with Greek warriors. But was there ever really such a city? For thousands of years, Troy and the Trojan War were thought to be only a myth. Then, beginning in 1870, Heinrich Schliemann, an amateur German archaeologist, began to unearth the ruins of Troy. The city had indeed been destroyed by a great coalition formed by the major city-states of continental Greece. It was a rare coalition. The ancient Greek city-states were usually in a constant state of war with each other. By the fifth century BC there were about four and a half million Greeks. It was at this time that Athens emerged as the most famous of the city-states. Athens still lives and thrives today. The modern city surrounds the Acropolis and the remains of the ancient city, showing thousands of years of continuous human habitation. Packed with a population of about five million people, it is often chaotic and polluted. Still, it is a living link to a vanished ancient world. In many places, the different periods the city has passed through are stacked one upon the other. But always soaring majestically above the teeming city was the eternal Parthenon and the other buildings of the Acropolis. The word Acropolis means the high part of a city, and in fact almost every city in ancient Greece had an Acropolis. Indeed, almost every city began as a settlement atop such a hill. Such sites were natural forts, protection against marauding beasts and enemy armies. Even as the ancient city grew and spread, the Acropolis was where the most important people lived. The Acropolis was where philosophy was debated and government conducted. Most significantly, the Acropolis was where gods and goddesses were worshiped in mysterious sacred rites. In the Mycenaean period, around 1200 BC, the original huts were replaced by fortifications, which later legend said were built by mythical giants. In 450 BC, the Acropolis took on the architectural appearance that established it as the center of Greek culture. The magnificence of the Acropolis remained intact even after the decline of Athens following its defeat by Sparta. Later in the 2nd century AD, the Romans added new walls and buildings like the spectacular Theater of Herodes Atticus. During Pericles' lifetime, Athens was at the height of its splendor. Yet even as great political and cultural events were unfolding, citizens could lead a comfortable, enjoyable daily life. Families thrived and people lived together in a period of relative bliss and peace. The Athenians, like all ancient Greeks, were a pious people. They believed in the power of the gods to help them or harm them, so religious festivals were held throughout the year. The head of a family would make periodic sacrifices to the gods. There were also special offerings made for particular occasions, as when a family member had fallen ill or was about to begin a dangerous journey. The regular festivals climaxed every four years with a great procession to the Acropolis. This was the Pan-Athenia, honoring Athena, the city's protector. All residents, no matter what their rank or occupation, would have been part of the joyous procession. In the ceremony, two young virgins would offer the goddess a peplum, a rich gown trimmed with colorful embroidery. The procession would enter the Acropolis through the Propylaia, the monumental entrance designed by architect Nesicles. In those ancient days, there was a picture gallery with paintings on canvas by Polygnotus and a nude Venus by painter Apelles. All these masterpieces disappeared long ago. After passing the Propylaia, worshippers would go to the inner square. Here stood Athena as warrior, Athena Promachos, 25 feet tall with a golden spear and helmet. It is one of the first statues of Athena. On the right, behind the sacred wall of the Temple of Artemis, one would catch a glimpse of the Parthenon, a perspective which survives today. In ancient times, this building held a curious statue, Athena Aptaros. Aptaros means without wings. The Athenians said her wings had been removed so that the goddess couldn't flee the city. It's the work of architect Callicretes, a real marble masterpiece sculpted during a truce between one of the many battles of Athens and its eternal rival, Sparta. A woman at this time, between 421 and 406 BC, might not have been allowed to enter this building, the Erechtheion, the most sacred temple on the Acropolis. It housed the city's most important relics, including an olive tree said to have been given by Athena. Here also were believed to be the tombs of Erechtheus and Cecrops, mythical founders of the city. And finally, the Palladium, the most venerated image of Athena, a wooden statuette that simply appeared magically one day. Today, the building's most famous feature is this porch of the Caryatids. Defaced by the ravages of time, these images may well have been portraits of women, revered for their beauty, who lived and died here over 2,000 years ago. From microscopic paint chips, archaeologists have reconstructed something of their original vitality. Of course, of all the structures on the Acropolis, the Parthenon, dedicated to the goddess Athena Parthenos, remains the most famous. 100 feet wide and 230 feet long, it has eight columns on the facades and 17 on each side. Construction began in 447 B.C., and archaeologists believe it took 15 years to complete. The spotless marble came from nearby quarries and changes color depending on how the light shines on it. The Parthenon survived largely intact until 1687 A.D., when a Turkish army used it to store ammunition, and there was a shattering explosion. Though accidents and pillaging have taken their toll, the glory survives. Archaeological reconstruction allows us to see these treasures as they were meant to be seen thousands of years ago. A look at the eastern gable shows scenes of the mythical battle for control of Athens between the goddess Athena and Poseidon, god of the sea, which, according to mythology, was fought on the Acropolis. Wonderful as the exterior of the Parthenon was, the real meaning of the Parthenon lay inside. The Parthenon celebrated one of Athena's most revered aspects, Athena as virgin. The statue of Athena inside the temple is, by all accounts, one of the most glorious lost treasures of the ancient world. Made of gold and ivory, it was over 40 feet tall. It was so expensive, the cost to build it was enough to outfit 300 warships. Its sculptor, Phidias, was said to have been inspired by the actual presence of the goddess in his studio as he worked. But the exorbitant price so angered the Athenians that Phidias was forced to go into exile for the rest of his life. The statue remained in place until 426 AD. Then, an invading army took it to far-off Constantinople, where it was destroyed in a fire which also consumed most of the city. Archaeologists know a lot about it through the so-called Statuette of Varvakion, a small reproduction of the Hellenistic period. For countless centuries, Athens and the Acropolis were a beacon for travelers throughout the ancient world. Many were on their way to Delphi, a holy place just northwest of Athens. There was a great temple here dedicated to the god Apollo. Delphi was also the site of a mystic oracle who gave cryptic glimpses of the future. Today, archaeologists experiment with techniques duplicating those available to the ancients, trying to determine just how the marble used at Delphi was brought here and put into place. This was built by the people of Athens in thanks for their great victory against the Persians at the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC. Once, these rooms were heaped with shields and spears wrested from the Persians and devotional statues made of gold and silver. But of course, all these treasures are long gone. Greek women at this time would have visited Delphi, adorned with jewelry and other ornaments. They would have scented themselves with perfume made from herbal extracts like mint, sesame, and cumin, and even worn lipstick. An ordinary day for a family began at dawn. Breakfast for adults and children alike was usually a little bread dipped in wine. As the day went on, the wife would attend to the children and the house while the husband left for a more public life. Athens offered an almost infinite variety of diversions for a male citizen of the upper classes. Unburdened by regular employment, he could visit and drink with friends while his wife stayed quietly at home. The men did do the shopping in an area called the Agora, offering a huge variety of goods. Household utensils, vegetables, wine, toiletries, pottery, leather, and wooden objects, miraculous herbs, and medicines. Inevitably, coins were dropped, rolled away, lost, and then found thousands of years later. They have proven that goods were paid for with both local currency and the coins of other city-states. Undoubtedly, the bargaining was vigorous. Another of the living links between ancient and modern Athens is the market in the city's Monastirakis district. Then as now, it was a huge chaotic bazaar where you could buy just about anything. Two hundred years before Christ, one writer said, In Athens, they sell everything in one place. All sorts of figs, bunches of grapes, turnips, pears, apples, and fish from every sea, lamb, animal entrails, myrtle berries, water clocks, chickpeas, cow colostrum pudding, and honeycombs. Even if one was of moderate income, the family would still have fish and beans, as well as lots of onions, cheeses, and garlic on the table at mealtime. The wine of the ancient Greeks had a high alcohol content, so it was diluted for serving. One part wine to five parts water. Mixing was done in large bowls and often flavored with scents like thyme, mint, and cinnamon. Outside the home, wine was a crucial social bond, particularly at the symposium. The word symposium literally means to drink together. Wives were not permitted to attend the symposiums of ancient Greece, but there were women present. They were courtesans, well-trained girls whose charms included dancing, music, and the reciting of comic and erotic poetry. Prostitution was so important in ancient Athens, the great lawgiver Solon included it in his rulings. The trade was concentrated in Kerameikos, a section by the Dipylon Gate, one of the city's most important. The district was also famous for the thousands of craftsmen and artists who produced beautiful pottery decorated with characteristic black and red figures. Pottery traded throughout the ancient world. Pottery production was a key component of the economic life of the ancient world, much like the automobile industry today. Potters and kilns kept busy 24 hours a day meant prosperity. In large measure, the life of Athens depended on what went on here. In another part of the city, the Agora, with its stoa, was a major center for local trade. Built in the second century B.C., it became another living link to the past when it was fully rebuilt in 1953. Today, it is the prestigious home of the Agora Museum. The stoa, a building with great colonnades and stores for retail sales, not only housed a two-story shopping center, but was also the site where many philosophers of ancient Athens gave their lectures. There were only male philosophers, no women, and men only were allowed to attend the lectures. Women were believed to be incapable of rational thought. At the center of the Agora stood the Tholos Prytaneia, erected during the fifth century B.C. with a diameter of 60 feet. This is where the Senate of Athens used to gather to debate the issues of the day. What laws to pass? What rival states to ally with? Which to fight? Should Socrates be put to death for preaching sedition? The senators were able to continue their sessions into the night because beds were brought in to make their stay more comfortable. The Theseion dominated the entire area. Although it was built during the time of Pericles, it remains in remarkably good condition. In large part, this is because of its conversion in the fifth century A.D. into a Christian church dedicated to Saint George. It has six columns on the facade and 13 on each side. The building's conversion to Christianity did not affect the embellishments celebrating pagan heroes like Theseus and Hercules. There used to be a sacred area dedicated to the most important Greek gods where the subway now passes. The site was considered the center of Athens. All distances were measured from an altar that stood here. Workers building the subway found sparse fragments which, together with contemporary accounts, allowed archaeologists to envision the site as it was then. The altar was surrounded by a low square wall. Drinking fountains were situated at the two entrances to allow visitors to cool down and a small altar was in the middle. Further on is the of Zeus Eleutherius, another place where men like Socrates and Plato developed the philosophies which would shape western thought. Today, city managers are assessing the feasibility of a project to restore the precious ancient site. In a sense, vast reaches of time are condensed in a place like Athens, the bustling present and the distant past coexisting as one. Athens, which survived the Persians and the plague and all the assaults that followed. Athens, the stage for endless human drama, thousands of years connected by the concerns of countless humans, mothers sending their children out into the uncertainties of an ever-changing world. Athens, the city of philosophers and artists, extraordinary people. Athens, favorite of the gods and goddesses. Athens, the favorite of time.