History of the Peloponnesian War: Book 1 by Thucydides | Book in Today's Language

In this video series, we'll go over a detailed summary of all eight books of Thucydides' history of the Peloponnesian War. Each book covers different stages and important events in the war between Athens and Sparta, going from the causes of the conflict, the early battles, Athens' internal problems, the involvement of other powers, and finally, the defeat of Athens. Thucydides, a Greek general, wrote this history that is considered one of the most important records of the ancient world. Let's get into the book. Thucydides begins his work by explaining why he believes the Peloponnesian War is the most important event in history up to that point. Both Athens and Sparta were fully prepared for war, and many other Greek states, along with some foreign nations, were drawn into the conflict, making it widespread and significant. He compares this war to earlier times in Greek history, which were marked by instability and frequent migrations caused by invasions. Greek tribes often had to move, especially from fertile areas like Thessaly, Boeotia, and parts of the Peloponnese, which were vulnerable to attack and internal conflict. However, Attica, with Athens at its center, was different. Its poor soil actually helped it remain stable during this period as it wasn't a target for invasions. He highlights how important the sea and naval power were for the rise of Greek influence. In earlier times, both the Greeks and Spartans turned to piracy to gain wealth, and this was seen as honorable, not shameful. However, Athens was the first city-state to abandon piracy and adopt a more refined lifestyle, which Thucydides contrasts sharply with the more traditional and militaristic ways of the Spartans. Indeed, it is only lately that their rich old men left off the luxury of wearing undergarments of linen and tied their hair with gold grasshopper clips, a style that also became popular among their relatives in Ionia and lasted for a long time. On the contrary, a modest style of dressing, more in conformity with modern ideas, was first adopted by the Spartans, the rich doing their best to assimilate their way of life to that of the common people. They also set the practice of competing naked in gymnastic exercises, rubbing themselves with oil in public contests. Thucydides explains how sea trade became important, leading coastal towns to build walls and settle near the sea for trade and protection. In earlier times, because of widespread piracy, towns were built inland to avoid attacks from groups like the Carians and Phoenicians. He also connects the Greek invasion of Troy to the rise in wealth from naval power and trade. But he also admits that after the Trojan War, Greece experienced chaos and migration, and that stability only came later when cities like Athens and those in the Peloponnese started colonizing places like Ionia and Sicily. Thucydides also talks about how Corinth and Samos increased their naval power, gaining wealth through trade and controlling piracy. For Athens, however, the Persian Wars, which happened years before the Peloponnesian War, were key to building their strong navy. Indeed, it was only shortly the Persian War and the death of Darius the successor of Cambyses that the Sicilian tyrants acquired any large number of galleys. For after these, there were no navies of any account in Hellas till the expedition of Xerxes. It was only at the end of this period, during the war with Aegina and the looming threat of Xerxes, that Themistocles convinced the Athenians to build the fleet they used in the Battle of Salamis, even though these ships were not fully decked. These ships allowed the Greeks to conquer the smaller islands easily. There were no major land wars that led to large-scale power. There were only small border conflicts, with no distant expeditions aimed at conquest among the Greeks. However, the growth of the Greek city-states faced many challenges. The Ionians were gaining power, but came into conflict with Persia. Later, Darius and the Phoenician navy conquered some islands. In Greece, tyrants focused on their own personal gain and safety, which prevented progress or cooperation between city-states. Thucydides explains that it was actually the Spartans who ended internal divisions among the Greeks, creating enough stability to win the important Battle of Marathon against the Persians. Eventually, the tyrants of Athens and other Greek city-states, with the exception of Sicily, were overthrown by Sparta. Sparta, after being settled by the Dorians, had suffered from internal conflicts for a long time, but it eventually established good laws and remained free from tyrants. Its stable government lasted over 400 years, allowing Sparta to help manage the affairs of other states. Not many years after the deposition of the tyrants, the Battle of Marathon was fought between the Medes and the Athenians. Ten years afterwards, the barbarian returned with the armada for the subjugation of Hellas. In response to this threat, Sparta took command of the Greek allies due to its military strength. The Athenians, deciding to abandon their city, took to their ships and became a naval power. After repelling the Persians, the Greek alliance split into two groups, one led by Athens, the dominant naval power, and the other by Sparta, the leading military power. The alliance strategy carried out by the Spartans involved securing loyalty from its allies by establishing oligarchies rather than demanding tribute. In contrast, Athens gradually weakened its allies by taking away their ships and imposing monetary contributions. These differences, along with other factors, caused Athens and Sparta to eventually clash, leading to a long war that dragged in all the Greek city-states. Thucydides sees the true beginning of the Peloponnesian War as the moment when a thirty-year truce, established after Athens took over Euboea, was broken by both the Athenians and the Peloponnesians. The city of Epidamnus, located on the coast of modern-day Albania, was founded by Corsaira and the Corinthians. Epidamnus faced problems from within, as well as attacks from the Tolantians, a nearby tribe from what is now Tirana. After a group of nobles were exiled from Epidamnus, they teamed up with the Tolantians to raid the city. Desperate for help, the people of Epidamnus first asked Corsaira their founding city, but Corsaira refused. They then turned to Corinth, who agreed to help, partly because of their historic connection and partly because they resented Corsaira's arrogance and strong navy. Corinth sent troops to defend Epidamnus, but Corsaira responded by laying siege to the city with a fleet, supported by the exiled nobles and the Tolantians. In response, Corinth gathered a large fleet of its own, asking allied cities for help and preparing for war with Corsaira. Fearing Corinth's growing power, Corsaira sought an alliance with Athens for protection. At an assembly with representatives from Athens, Corinth, and Corsaira, the Corsairians admitted that their past isolation had made them vulnerable and argued that it would be in Athens' strategic interest to support them. is now found asking them to ally themselves with her. Yes, we did manage to defend ourselves against the Corinthians in the last battle, but now they've gathered a much larger force from Peloponnese and the rest of Greece. Realizing our utter inability to cope with them without foreign aid and the magnitude of the danger which subjection to them implies, we find it necessary to ask help from you and from every other power. We hope you'll understand why we're abandoning our old policy of political isolation, which wasn't meant with any bad intentions, but was simply a mistaken judgment. After this part of the speech, the Corsairians give the Athenians several strong reasons to support an alliance. First, they say that by helping Corsaira, Athens would be backing a Second, Corsaira is fighting for values that Athens shares. And thirdly, Corsaira has the second largest navy in Greece, after Athens, so teaming up would make the Athenian fleet even stronger. Finally, they warn the Athenians that, even if it doesn't seem like it at that present moment, war is close, whether Athens wants it or not. Some might say we would only be useful in case of war. To this we say, if any of you think war is far off, you are mistaken. Sparta is jealous of you and wants war, and Corinth is strong there. Corinth, your enemy, is now trying to defeat us as a first step before attacking you. They want to stop us from teaming up with you and either weaken us or add our strength to their side. Therefore, it is in your interest to act now. Let us make an alliance and join forces. We should be making plans against Corinth, not waiting for them to attack us. Finally, the Corsairians highlight the strategic importance of their location, which controls key routes between Italy, Sicily, and Greece. If Athens lets Corinth take control of Corsaira, they would face a combined Corinthian and Corsairian fleet. However, if Athens allies with Corsaira, they would gain a powerful fleet for themselves in the coming conflict. Such were the words of the Corsairians. After they had finished, the Corinthians spoke as well. They responded by saying that the Corsairians, while pretending to want justice, had really stayed isolated to avoid being held accountable for their actions. They argued that if the Corsairians were truly innocent, they would stick to their alliance with Corinth instead of trying to ally with Athens against them. The Corinthians also accused the Corsairians of being hypocritical and opportunistic in asking Athens for an alliance. Not satisfied with their own misconduct there, they appear here now requiring you to join with spite of their being at enmity with us. But if they truly wanted your friendship, they should have come to you when they were strong, not now when they've wronged us and are in danger. They never included you in their power, but now they expect you to protect them. If you help them, you'll be blamed just as much as they are, even though you had no part in their actions before. They should have shared their power with you before asking you to share in The Corinthians then remind the Athenians that aligning with Corsaira would inevitably lead Athens into conflict with them, and that it is more appropriate for Athens to remain neutral or side with Corinth, which they have treaties with. Also, they reminded the Athenians of past assistance they provided them. After hearing both sides, the Athenians held two meetings. At first, they supported Corinth, but in the second meeting, opinions changed, and they decided to form an alliance with Corsaira. However, this was a defensive alliance, meaning Athens would not help Corsaira attack Corinth, but would defend them if they were invaded. The Athenians saw a future conflict with the Peloponnesian League coming, and didn't want Corsaira, with its powerful navy, to be taken over by Corinth. In response, the Corinthians gathered a fleet of 150 ships, while the Corsairians, with help from 10 Athenian ships and extra troops, got ready for battle near the Cyboda Islands, close to their land. When the two fleets met, they lined up and got ready for battle. The battle was intense and chaotic, with the Corinthians' right wing taking the hardest hit. The Corsairians defeated them and chased them to the mainland with 20 ships, even reaching their camp, where they burned the empty tents and pillaged the place. In this area, the Corinthians and their allies lost. However, as the battle progressed, the Athenians became more and more engaged in it, to the point of finally confronting the Corinthians directly. Seeing the Corsairians hard-pressed, the Athenians began at length to assist them more unequivocally. At first, they avoided directly attacking any ships, but as it became obvious that the Corsairians were losing and the Corinthians were pushing hard, things escalated. Soon everyone joined the fight without holding back, and it reached the point where the Corinthians and Athenians were openly fighting each other. As the Corinthians got ready for another battle, they saw 20 Athenian ships approaching. Worried that more Athenian forces might arrive, they decided to retreat, stopping the fight as night came. The next day, the combined Athenian and Corsairian fleet sailed towards the harbor at Cyboda, challenging the Corinthians. The Corinthians lined up defensively, but didn't plan to attack. Concerned about their captured men and the condition of their ships, they sent a small boat to the Athenians to test their intentions. They accused Athens of breaking the treaty and demanded to know if they were now to be treated as enemies. The Athenians responded in the following manner. Neither are we beginning war, Peloponnesians, nor are we breaking the treaty. But these Corsairians are our allies, and we are here to help them. So if you want to sail anywhere else, we place no obstacle in your way. But if you are going to sail against Corsaira or any of her possessions, we shall do our best to stop you. On their way back from these encounters, the Corinthians captured the city of Anectorium through betrayal, settled their own people there, and took 800 Corsairian slaves, including 250 high-ranking captives, to use as leverage to sway Corsaira to their side. Tensions quickly grew between Athens and the Peloponnesians. The Athenians took action against Potidaea, a Corinthian colony allied with them, ordering the Potidaeans to tear down their wall and dismiss their Corinthian leaders. Fearing a revolt encouraged by Perdiccas, the son of the Macedonian king, Athens sent 30 ships and 1,000 soldiers to secure their position. The Potidaeans tried negotiating with Athens and Sparta, but it didn't work. When Athenian ships arrived, they found Potidaea and nearby towns in revolt. Realizing they couldn't fight both Perdiccas and the rebellious cities, the Athenian commanders turned their attention to Macedonia, forming alliances with Philip and Derdas. In response to Potidaea's rebellion, the Corinthians sent 1,600 heavy infantry and 400 light troops to help, while the Athenians sent 2,000 heavy infantry and 40 ships under General Callias. The Corinthian general, Aristeas, planned to ambush the Athenians. While his forces initially succeeded in one area, they were eventually defeated and forced to retreat behind the walls. Potidaea lost around 300 men, while the Athenians lost about 150, including General Callias. With no hope of rescue, Aristeas told most of his men to escape by sea, while he tried to get help from the Peloponnesians. During a Spartan assembly, several allies voiced their grievances against Athens. The Megarians highlighted their exclusion from Athenian markets, while Corinth, having listened to others' complaints, presented a strong case against Athens and complained to the Spartans the way in which they ignored their warnings of the dangers posed by the Athenians. Corinth pointed out the urgent threat posed by Athens, mentioning how they deceitfully took control of Corsaira and are now laying siege to Potidaea. These actions clearly show Athenian aggression, which endangers their allies and the entire Greek world. The Corinthian speaker argues that the real problem is not just Athens, but also those who could have stopped them. He then goes on to compare the attitudes and traits of the Athenians with the Spartans. It seems you don't fully understand what kind of opponents the Athenians are and how different they are from you. The Athenians are addicted to innovation, and their designs are characterized by swiftness alike in conception and execution. In contrast, you are good at holding on to what you have, but struggle to come up with new ideas, and when you have to act, you often don't go far enough. Again, they are adventurous beyond their power and daring beyond their judgment, and in danger, they are sanguine. While you tend to underestimate what you can do, second-guess your decisions and feel trapped by danger, they are quick to act while you tend to procrastinate. The Athenians are often away from home because they hope to expand their influence, whereas you prefer to stay close to what you already have. They rush to take advantage of successes and are slow to recover from failures. They willingly put their bodies on the line for their country and carefully think about how to use their skills to serve it. For them, not acting on an idea is seen as a loss, while achieving something is only seen as a partial success. When a plan fails, they quickly replace it with new hopes because they are good at acting on their decisions swiftly. They work hard, often facing difficulties and dangers, with little time for enjoyment. To them, a holiday is just another chance to take care of what needs to be done, and they view hard work as less of a burden than living a quiet life. To describe their character in a word, one might truly say that they were born into the world to take no rest themselves and to give none to others. The Corinthian urges the Spartans to realize how urgent their situation is and to take strong action against Athenian aggression. He also warned that the Spartans' usual methods may not work against the quick and creative tactics of Athens, suggesting that they need to adapt and improve to succeed. The Corinthian speaker emphasizes that if the Spartans act, their allies will stay loyal because they share a strong bond. Meanwhile, Athenian envoys, who were already in Sparta for other matters, felt the need to respond to the speeches. Their aim was not to defend against the accusations, but to highlight that the situation needed careful thought rather than rushed decisions. The Spartans invited the Athenian envoys to speak, and they got ready to present their case. The Athenian envoys pointed out that Athens should be recognized for its contributions during the Persian wars, especially at the battles of Marathon and Salamis, where they played a key role in defeating the invaders. They noted that Athens provided a large part of the Greek fleet, led by Themistocles. The envoys argued that, even after losing their city and belongings, the Athenians bravely joined the fight without holding a grudge against Sparta for not helping. They said their sacrifices and actions were just as important to the shared victory, and that their empire was built not through force, but because the allies chose to support Athens. Therefore, it was important for Athens to keep its empire, especially since their allies were starting to turn against them. The Athenian envoys criticized the view that their rule was too harsh, suggesting that their allies' complaints came more from feeling unequal than from real mistreatment. They pointed out that many subjects of Athens were more upset about losing legal battles than about being oppressed. The Athenians then warned the Spartans not to take the Corinthians' words at face value, and urged them to engage in mutual negotiations to resolve their issues. In the end of this speech, most of the people present had no doubts. The Athenians were aggressors, and war should be waged against them. However, King Archidamus of Sparta, known for his wisdom and moderation, stepped forward to urge caution. He warned against rushing into war with Athens, emphasizing the importance of careful thought before making such a major decision. He explained that the Athenians were not like the Peloponnesians and listed several reasons to approach the situation with moderation rather than rushing headlong into In a struggle with Peloponnesians and neighbors, our strength is of the same character, and it is possible to move swiftly on the different points. But a struggle with a people who live in a distant land, who have also an extraordinary familiarity with the sea, and who are in the highest state of preparation in every other department. With wealth private and public, with ships and horses and heavy infantry, and a population such as no other Hellenic place can equal, and lastly a number of tributary allies. What can justify us in rashly beginning such a struggle? Do we trust in our navy? We're weaker there, and it will take time for us to improve. Do we trust in our money? We're short on that too, both in public funds and private contributions. We might rely on our strong infantry and large population to invade and damage their land, but the Athenians control many other territories and can get everything they need by sea. Instead of rushing into war, King Archidamus advocates for a diplomatic approach, suggesting that it would allow time for Sparta to strengthen its own military and financial resources. He stresses the importance of acquiring new allies, both Hellenic and barbarian, to increase their strength. The King of Sparta asserts that war is fundamentally about resources, particularly money, and urges the Spartans to not be swayed by the impatience of their allies, but to remain calm and deliberative in their decision-making process. In fact, in his view, it is not a matter of cowardice not to attack, but of intelligence. And none need think it cowardice for a number of confederates to pause before they attack a single city. The Athenians have allies as numerous as our own, and allies that pay tribute. War isn't just about weapons. It's about money, which makes those weapons useful. This is especially true when fighting between a land power like us and a sea power like Athens. So first we need to gather money and not let our allies' demands push us into action too soon. Since we bear the greatest responsibility for the outcome, whether good or bad, we have the right to carefully consider what we're doing. Then, after the King's speech, came Stenilatus, an ephor of Sparta. The ephors were a board of five magistrates in ancient Sparta that held judicial, religious, legislative, and military powers and could even influence foreign affairs. Stenilatus began by dismissing the Athenians' long speech, saying it was full of self-praise but didn't deny the harm they were causing to their allies and the Peloponnese. He argued that instead of wasting time on long discussions, they should act immediately. Justice, he said, calls for quick and strong help, not delays and debates. So, Spartans, vote for war as our honor demands. Don't let Athens grow stronger or leave our allies to be destroyed. With the gods on our side, let's take action against the aggressors. Stenilatus, then, put the question of war against Athens to the Spartan assembly, using their traditional method of acclamation rather than voting. He asked those who believed Athens had broken the treaty and was guilty to stand in one place while those who thought otherwise were to stand in another. A clear majority held that the treaty had been violated and war was needed. Thucydides, then, describes these Spartans' decisions as part of their fear towards the Athenians. The Spartans voted that the treaty had been broken and that the war must be declared. Not so much because they were persuaded by the arguments of the allies, but mostly because they feared the growth of the power of the Athenians, seeing most of Hellas already subject to them. After the Greeks defeated the Persians, the Athenians and their allies besieged and captured Sestos, a Persian stronghold, before returning to their own cities. Back in Athens, they started rebuilding their city in walls, which had been destroyed during the Persian invasion. Worried about Athens' growing naval power and strength, the Spartans, influenced by their allies, sent a message to Athens asking them not to rebuild their walls and to help tear down other city walls as well. Themistocles, a key leader in Athens and alarmed by this, came up with a plan to buy time while the Athenians quickly rebuilt their walls. He went to Sparta and pretended to wait for his colleagues while the Athenians worked hard on their fortifications. When the Spartans began to get suspicious, Themistocles suggested they send envoys to check on the wall's progress. He secretly advised the Athenians to hold on to them until the walls were finished. Once the walls were nearly complete, Themistocles informed the Spartans that Athens was now fortified and could defend itself. Themistocles had an audience of Spartans and openly told them that Athens was now fortified sufficiently to protect its inhabitants. He reminded them that when the Athenians decided to leave their city and take to the sea, they made that risky choice without asking for Sparta's advice. However, when they had worked together with the Spartans, they had always shown good judgment. The Spartans, though secretly annoyed, did not openly express anger and the envoys returned to their respective cities without conflict. Meanwhile, Themistocles encouraged the Athenians to finish building the walls around Piraeus. He believed that having a strong navy was essential for Athens' future strength. At the same time, Pausanias, a Spartan commander, led a Greek expedition to Cyprus and Byzantium and initially won several battles. However, his harsh treatment of the allies upsetted many, especially the Ionians, who then looked to Athens for leadership. The Athenians accepted this role, replacing Sparta as the head of the Greek alliance. Pausanias was called back to Sparta due to accusations of misconduct, but he was acquitted, though he did not regain his command. After this, Sparta stepped back from leading the Persian Wars, allowing Athens to take control and establish dominance through the Delian League. The Athenians gained supremacy because the other city-states wanted to get rid of Pausanias. They decided which cities would contribute money and which would provide ships to fight against the Persians, with the goal of taking revenge by attacking the king's territory. This was when the Athenians created the position of Treasurers for Hellas. These officials were in charge of collecting the tribute. This period marked the rise of the Athenian Empire, established between the Persian and Peloponnesian Wars. During this time, Athens launched military campaigns, capturing cities from the Medes, enslaving people and suppressing revolts, most notably on the Naxos island. Many revolts arose from Athens' strict tribute demands and military service, as allies preferred paying money over providing ships. While Athens besieged Thassos, Sparta was unable to assist due to an earthquake and a helot rebellion. After a long siege, Thassos surrendered, losing its walls, ships, and mines and agreeing to pay tribute. Athens was growing in power and influence, but tensions increased when Sparta asked Athens to help besiege Aethon, but then dismissed them out of distrust for their revolutionary tendencies. The first open quarrel between the Spartans and Athenians arose out of this expedition. The Spartans, when the assault failed to take the place, apprehensive of the enterprising and revolutionary character of the Athenians, began to fear that, if they remained, they might be to attempt some political changes. They accordingly dismissed them alone of the allies, without declaring their suspicions, but merely saying that they had now no need of them. The Athenians felt insulted and believed they hadn't done anything wrong to deserve this treatment. When they returned home, they ended their alliance with Sparta, which had been formed against the Persians, and instead allied with Sparta's enemy, Argos. This alliance of Athens with the city of Argos was, in Thucydides's view, the commencement of the war between both great superpowers. Athens, now hostile to Sparta, welcomed the Aethome exiles and settled them in a western city of Greece. Athens also gained new allies, including the Megarians, who left the Spartan alliance after boundary disputes with Corinth. Athens fortified Megara and also sieged Aegina. While the Spartans sent reinforcements to help Aegina, Corinth took advantage of it and invaded Megara, the newly acquired allies of Athens. However, Athens managed to defend Megara anyway, leaving the Corinthians severely blowed. The Athenians, coming out from Megara, attacked the Corinthians, defeating them in battle. During their retreat, a large group of Corinthians mistakenly ran into a field, surrounded by a trench with no way out. Knowing the area, the Athenians trapped them with heavy infantry and stoned them with light troops, causing heavy losses to Corinth. The rest of the Corinthian army retreated home. During this time, the Athenians also attacked the Spartans in the city of Tanagra. Although the Spartans won the initial battle, the Athenians soon took control of Boeotia and Phocis, tore down Tanagra's walls, and forced Aegina to surrender, imposing a tribute on the city. Meanwhile, the Athenians attempted to free Egypt from Persian rule, but their campaign ended in disaster. The Persian general Megabusas defeated them and drove the Greeks out of Egypt. At the same time, Athens, under the leadership of the great general Pericles, was successfully putting down several revolts. First, they crushed revolts in Euboea and then in Megara. After returning from Euboea, the Athenians made a 30-year truce with Sparta, but tensions grew, and the truce quickly dissolved, especially after revolts on the island of Samos, which were backed by the Persians. Not long after their return from Euboea, they made a truce with the Spartan and their allies for thirty years, giving up the posts which they occupied in Peloponnese. In the sixth year of the truce, war broke out between the Samians and Milesians about Prien. Worsted in the war, the Milesians came to Athens with loud complaints against the Samians. In this, they were joined by certain private persons from Samos itself, who wished to revolutionize the government. Athens responded by sending a fleet led by Pericles, defeating the Samians at sea and laying siege to their city. Despite some initial successes by the Samians, they were eventually overpowered. After a nine-month siege, Samos surrendered, agreeing to dismantle their walls, give hostages, surrender their ships, and pay for the war's costs. Byzantium also submitted to Athenian control again. The Spartans recognized Athens' growing power, but initially chose to focus on their own problems instead of intervening. However, as Athenian control started to threaten their allies, Sparta realized they could no longer ignore the situation. Believing that war was unavoidable, Sparta consulted the Oracle at Delphi, which assured them of victory if they fully committed to the fight. Despite this promise, they held a second meeting with their allies to discuss the matter further. The Corinthians spoke first, expressing their desire for war against Athens and praising the Spartans for taking action by voting for war and gathering the allies again. They pointed out that Athenian aggression posed a threat not only to coastal states, but to all Greek states, including those further inland, making action necessary. For these reasons, they should not hesitate to exchange peace for war. Wise people stay quiet when they aren't harmed, but brave people choose to fight when they are injured, knowing they can make peace again when the time is right. They don't get drunk on their war victories or hold on to peace just for the sake of comfort. In fact, hesitating to act in the name of comfort can quickly lead to losing the peace they value, and getting overly confident from success in war makes them forget how fragile that confidence really is. The Corinthians believe they have a good chance of success due to their larger numbers, superior military experience, and ability to weaken Athens' naval power by recruiting foreign sailors. They suggest using multiple strategies, such as inciting revolts among Athenian allies, to further weaken Athens. They stress that if they don't unite now, Athens will conquer them one by one, and they urge their allies to vote for war as the only way to secure freedom for themselves and the rest of Greece, while partially destroying their empire. Out of war peace gains fresh stability, but to refuse to abandon repose for war is not so sure a method of avoiding danger. We must believe that the tyrant city that has been established in Hellas has been established against all alike, with a program of universal empire, part fulfilled, part in contemplation. Let's attack it, defeat it, and ensure our safety and freedom for the Greeks who are currently enslaved. After hearing from the Corinthians, the Spartans voted for war, but couldn't act right away due to a lack of preparation. Instead, they focused on gathering resources and sending diplomatic missions to weaken Athens. Meanwhile, the Spartan general Pausanias secretly proposed an alliance with King Xerxes of Persia against Athens. He even suggested marrying Xerxes's daughter and bringing all of Greece under Persian rule. All this without Spartan knowledge. Xerxes was impressed and sent his trusted envoy, Artabasus, to help Pausanias with their plans. This was Xerxes's response to Pausanias's alliance proposal. Thus saith King Xerxes to Pausanias, For the men you saved for me from Byzantium, I owe you a lasting debt of gratitude. I am pleased with your proposals. Don't let anything stop you from keeping your promises to me, whether it's day or night. Don't worry about the cost in gold or silver or the number of troops needed. Work with Artabasus, a respected man I'm sending you, to help us both achieve our goals. After receiving Xerxes's positive response, Pausanias grew arrogant and showed off, abandoning the modesty expected of a Greek leader. He wore Median clothing, surrounded himself with foreign guards, and adopted Persian customs, which upset his Greek allies and led many city-states to side with Athens. When the Spartans learned of his behavior, they sent him a herald and a cital, demanding he return to Sparta or be declared a public enemy. To avoid suspicion, Pausanias returned and was initially imprisoned by the Aethors. He later negotiated his release and agreed to face trial for the allegations against him. However, the Spartans found it hard to punish him due to a lack of evidence, as no one could prove wrongdoing against a member of the royal family. Eventually, the Aethors discovered his true intentions and tried to arrest him. Realizing what was happening, Pausanias fled to the temple of the goddess of the brazen house for sanctuary. The Aethors surrounded the temple, preventing his escape, and he ultimately starved. When they pulled him from the temple, he died shortly after. After investigating Pausanias' ties with Persia, the Spartans also accused Themistocles of plotting with the Persians and demanded the Athenians punish him. However, he escaped and wandered through several lands. Once safe, he sent a letter to King Artaxerxes of Persia, discussing their past relationship and asking for a year of protection as he was being pursued by the Greeks. The king welcomed Themistocles' plans and encouraged him to move forward. In the year before he arrived at court, Themistocles focused on learning Persian and local customs. Themistocles was known for his keen intuition, quick judgment in crises, and foresight, making him a valuable ally. However, he died young, ending the cycle of treason involving Pausanias and himself. After his death, the Spartans sent a second embassy to Athens, demanding the end of the siege of Potidaea and recognition of Aegina's independence. They insisted that peace could only happen if Athens revoked the Megara Decree, which blocked Megarians from Athenian ports and markets. Athens refused, leading the Spartans to issue an ultimatum. In response, the Athenians held an assembly to discuss the demands, where Pericles, their leading statesman, offered his advice. Pericles urged the Athenians to firmly refuse any concessions to the Peloponnesians. He acknowledged that initial resolve for war might waver, but he emphasized the need to remain strong against Spartan demands. He warned that conceding even minor requests would lead to larger demands and eventually result in Athens' submission. He contrasted Athens' wealth and naval experience with the Peloponnesians, who were mainly farmers and lacked experience in long-term naval warfare. The Peloponnesians are busy farming their land and lack both private and public funds. They also have little experience in long sea wars due to their limited resources. They can't often send out fleets or armies because they can't afford to leave home or pay for military campaigns. Additionally, they don't control the sea, which is crucial for maintaining a war effort. Remember, it's money that keeps a war going. Farmers are usually willing to fight but are less likely to contribute money because they worry about running out of funds, especially if the war drags on. In a single battle, the Peloponnesians might be able to stand up to all of Greece, but they struggle to sustain a long-term war because they lack a united command. Instead, they have a mix of different states, each with equal voting power and pursuing their own interests, which usually leads to inaction. Some want to settle personal scores, while others prioritize their own finances. They take a long time to gather, and when they do, they spend most of their time focusing on their own goals rather than any common objectives. Pericles advised the Athenians to concentrate on defending their navy and city instead of getting drawn into land battles, and emphasized that saving lives should be more important than protecting land and possessions, suggesting that Athens should focus on maintaining control of the sea and act cautiously. Pericles also proposed a diplomatic approach to the Spartans, stating that Athens would let Megara use their markets only if the Spartans stopped their aggressive actions. He ended his speech by urging the Athenians to prepare for war, saying that doing so would honor their brave ancestors. It must be thoroughly understood that war is a necessity, but that the more readily we accept it, the less will be the ardor of our opponents, and that out of the greatest dangers communities and individuals acquire the greatest glory. Didn't our ancestors defend against the Medes with much fewer resources, and even after many of those resources were lost? They succeeded more through wisdom and courage than luck or strength, and they managed to push back the enemy and build our current power. We cannot let them down. We must fight our enemies in every possible way and ensure that we pass on our strength to future generations. Such were the words of Pericles. The Athenians agreed with his advice and voted accordingly. They responded to the Spartans, stating they would not act under pressure, but were willing to resolve disputes fairly through the legal processes outlined in their truce. Consequently, the Spartan envoys returned home without further discussions, and everyone was now prepared to wage war against each other.