How Ottoman finally DEFEATED the 2 BIGGEST Empires? Ottoman invasion of Hungary and Byzantine

This is how Ottoman defeated the two biggest empires in the medieval time. Firstly, we go straight to fall of Constantinople in 1453. Mehmed II divided his forces on land into four main groups. He personally led a unit stationed in a strategic spot before the Romanus and Carisius gates, where Ottoman artillery could bombard the Theodosian walls from an elevated position. His right flank extended to the Sea of Marmara, while his left stretched up to the Golden Horn. A trench and an earthen fortification were set up about 250 meters from the city walls. Meanwhile, another group took position north of the Golden Horn, near the Genoese settlement of Galata. Finally, Mehmed's fleet of about 110 galleys and other light ships set up a blockade from the sea to cut off Constantinople entirely. As the large Ottoman army settled into their positions, the defenders of Constantinople looked on with dread. They now had the daunting task of defending over 20 kilometers of walls with only around 7,000 to 8,000 men. Emperor Constantine XI stationed roughly 2,000 troops at the center of the walls, at the Mesotakion. Giovanni Giustiniani, an expert in defending walled cities, was given command over the defense of the northern Carisius gate by the emperor. On the night of April 6th, Ottoman artillery began a heavy bombardment of the city walls, and in the following days, Serbian sappers started digging tunnels toward the walls. By April 12th, Orban's massive cannons, including the mighty Basilica, arrived on the battlefield after a difficult march from Edirne. They launched enormous projectiles, weighing between 200 and 1,500 pounds, causing tremors across the Bosphorus region. However, these massive cannons required three hours to reload, and their imprecision, extremely slow rate of fire, gave Byzantine engineers precious time to swiftly repair breaches in the fortifications caused by the Ottoman bombardment. After six days of relentless bombardment, Sultan Mehmed believed that the Mesotakion section of the wall was damaged enough for a direct assault. On the night of April 18th, he ordered his troops to attack a collapsed part of the wall near the saint. Romanus Gate, while his navy attempted to break through the defensive chain at the Golden Horn. However, Giustiniani's Genoese soldiers had fortified this area, creating a strategic barricade that held back the Ottoman forces. After four hours of intense fighting and heavy casualties, Mehmed had no choice but to retreat, leaving the Theodosian walls standing strong once again. At the same time, the Ottoman navy's assault also failed. Mehmed was humiliated by the dual defeat, but the situation worsened when three Genoese ships, carrying supplies, soldiers, and weapons sent by Pope Nicholas V, managed to breach the Ottoman blockade and enter the city. This success greatly boosted the morale of Constantinople's defenders. Enraged by this turn of events, Mehmed ordered the construction of a greased wooden road through Galata, north of the Golden Horn. In the dead of night, he had his ships hauled over the hill and into the Golden Horn, bypassing the chain barrier altogether. On the morning of April 22, Constantinople's defenders on the northern sea walls awoke to a shocking sight— the Turkish ships moving freely within the Golden Horn, protected by artillery fire from the opposite shore. In the days that followed, the Emperor's War Council scrambled to devise plans to eliminate the Turkish fleet in the Golden Horn. After much discussion, they settled on a plan proposed by the Venetian galley captain Giacomo Coco to burn the enemy ships with Greek fire— the same substance that had devastated the Arab fleet during the siege of 717–718. Therefore, on the night of April 28, five Byzantine ships crept through the dark waters toward the Ottoman fleet, aiming to strike without warning. But as they closed in, one ship unexpectedly surged ahead, breaking their cover. This slip-up alerted the Ottomans, who quickly responded with a fierce counterattack. The defenders suffered a bitter defeat. Their captain was killed, and the captured Italian sailors faced public execution by the Ottomans, sending a grim message to the people of Constantinople. The defenders didn't let this go unanswered. In retaliation, they executed 260 Ottoman prisoners. Frustrated by the defenders' resilience in the recent raid, Sultan Mehmed II decided to ramp up his assault. He ordered intensified bombardments on the Romanus and Carisius gates, as well as on the city's northern seawalls. He was determined to breach the city, no matter the cost. On May 7, he launched a massive attack on the Romanus gate. Of course, leading the defense was the experienced commander Giustiniani, whose steadfast leadership helped the defenders repel the assault. Undeterred, Mehmed tried again on May 12, this time targeting the walls around the Blakarni district. But once again, the emperor and his defenders held strong, forcing the Ottomans back. Seeing that his direct attacks weren't breaking through, Mehmed decided to try a different tactic. He called on his Serbian miners to dig tunnels under the city walls, hoping to collapse them from beneath and create a path for his troops. However, the defenders had a secret weapon of their own. A Scottish mercenary named John Grant had been hired to handle situations just like this. Grant used barrels of water to detect underground movements and pump toxic gas or Greek fire into the tunnels to obstruct the enemy. Whenever the miners dug too close, he flooded the tunnels or burned them out. Once again, the defenders managed to stave off Mehmed's attempts. The siege dragged on into the third week of May, and both sides were feeling the strain. Over 50 days of relentless fighting had taken a toll on the defenders, whose numbers were now dwindling. While the long-promised aid from the West still hadn't arrived. On May 28th, a heavy fog settled over Constantinople. Many people saw a strange light appear over the dome of Hagia Sophia, and some took it as a divine sign that the city's fall was imminent. Mehmed sensed that the time was right for a final, decisive assault and convened his war council. The decision was made. They would strike with all their might in one last push to take the city. As night fell on May 28th, Ottoman soldiers prayed and prepared themselves for the battle that lay ahead. All for the moment, at around 1.30 in the morning, Mehmed launched his troops against the walls of Blahirne, Mesoteikion, and the third military gates. His navy joined the assault, attacking the southern seawalls to keep the defenders stretched thin. Wave after wave of experienced janissaries hit the walls, gradually wearing down the already exhausted defenders. And then, in a disastrous turn of events, the defenders accidentally left the Kirkoporta gate open. Ottoman troops, including fifty warriors, discovered this unguarded entry point and began streaming into the royal palace. The defenders' morale took another severe blow when Giustiniani, the leader who had held them together through many battles, was severely wounded. He was forced to leave the field. And with him gone, the defenders' spirit began to falter. The Ottomans intensified their attacks on other gates, including Carisius, and the defenses began to crumble. Panic spread throughout the city as Ottoman soldiers forced open the gates and poured into Constantinople. Defenders and civilians alike scrambled to escape, seeking refuge or attempting to flee through the harbors of Neorian and Prashopian. Realizing that the city was lost, Emperor Constantine XI chose to face his fate. According to legend, he removed his imperial regalia, gathered his remaining troops, and joined the final desperate fight on the front lines. He vanished into the chaos, and his ultimate fate became a mystery. By 7 a.m. on May 29, the last of Constantinople's walls had fallen and Ottoman forces surged through the streets. They began looting and slaughtering as they made their way through the city, marking the end of a fierce 53-day siege. The fall of Constantinople in 1453 was marked by staggering casualties. On the first day of the siege, Ottoman losses ranged from 200 to 18,000. But by the end of the campaign, the toll on the Ottoman forces reached 15,000 to 50,000. The Byzantine defenders, however, suffered even greater devastation. Around 4,500 perished, and between 30,000 to 50,000 civilians were enslaved. When the Sultan entered Constantinople on June 2, the city lay in ruins, its churches desecrated, and treasures plundered. He claimed the city as his prize, ordering the Hagia Sophia converted into a mosque, and declaring himself as the new Caesar, inheriting Rome's legacy. The fall of Constantinople marked the end of the Roman Empire. Closing the chapter on 1,500 years of history, and signaling the dawn of the modern era. It was a loss that transcended history. The fall of a once great civilization. And 73 years later, Ottoman finally crushed the Hungary in the Battle of Mohacs in 1526. The Hungarians had been camped near Mohacs for three weeks, providing ample time to select a battlefield that could even the odds. The battlefield, spanning over 57 square kilometers, presented a complex and varied terrain for the armies engaged in combat. Though the floodplain appeared to be flat enough to allow for cavalry movement, it was actually dotted with uneven and boggy sections. These areas transitioned into swampy woodland to the east, which posed a significant obstacle for maneuvering. To the west, the ground became firmer, and rolled into partly wooded hills that extended southward, limiting the Ottoman forces' ability to spread out freely. Additionally, the Danube marshes to the east provided a natural defensive barrier, adding another layer of complexity to the battlefield. A tributary running through the plains further fragmented the terrain, creating additional tactical challenges for both sides of narrow plains and uneven ground, made the terrain difficult to navigate, especially for the Ottoman forces that were accustomed to more open battlefields. The terrain at Mohacs played a significant role in shaping the deployment of the Ottoman forces, which were split into separate columns due to the marshy landscape. Sultan Suleyman's army was meticulously structured into three main divisions. At the front was the vanguard, consisting primarily of provincial troops and conscripts. These troops were the first to engage the enemy, setting the stage for the larger, more organized attack that would follow. The center of the Ottoman formation was the strongest part of the army, home to the elite household troops, including the Janissaries, a disciplined professional infantry, and the Sepahi cavalry. The center also housed the Ottoman artillery, including cannons and firearms, which had been decisive in previous conquests like the fall of Constantinople. This combination of elite infantry, cavalry, and artillery formed the main strike force, capable of delivering devastating blows to the Hungarian defense. Finally, the rearguard comprised additional provincial cavalry and conscripts, tasked with protecting the flanks and ensuring the army remained unified and secure as they advanced. Their presence was vital for preventing the Hungarians from outmaneuvering the Ottomans. Suleyman's army included specialized units, such as the Temariyats, provincial cavalry who brought their own equipment and served in a semi-feudal capacity, and the Kapikulu Sepahis, a regular, professional cavalry force. The Akinci, mounted irregulars, played a critical role as advanced scouts and raiders, striking quickly and unpredictably. Alongside them were the Azobs, peasant mercenaries, and Derbencis, local guards tasked with securing the rear and supply lines. This organization ensured that each part of his army could play a pivotal role in the battle. Not only was Suleyman an accomplished military strategist, but his personal qualities as a leader—sophisticated, multilingual, and well-educated in tactics—gave him a unique edge over his adversaries. His ruthlessness, however, was also apparent, especially when he executed his own son, Şehzade Mustafa, for alleged rebellion, reflecting the authoritarian nature of his rule. The Hungarian army, though not as large or as advanced as the Ottoman one, included a mixture of cavalry, infantry, and artillery, designed to take advantage of the terrain and the enemy's tactics. The Hungarians relied heavily on heavy cavalry, with the backbone of their mounted forces composed of the Hungarian and Serbian Hussars, highly skilled horsemen known for their expertise in border skirmishes. These Hussars were intended to serve as the main strike force against the In addition to the cavalry, the Hungarian infantry comprised the Hungarians, Croatians, a small number of Polish mercenaries, and German-speaking Landsknechte. The Landsknechte were famous for their proficiency with pikes, arquebuses, and the double-handed swords, the Zweihänder, fighting in tight formations known as the Pike Square. Among these mercenaries were the Doppelsöldner, the equivalent of volunteers who were paid double to fight on the front lines of the square formation, known for their bravery, and sometimes recklessness. The Hungarian artillery force consisted of approximately 50 to 80 cannons, a considerable number for the period, capable of providing strong fire support during battle. Under Temori leadership, Hungary's defensive formation was structured into two lines. The first line of the Hungarian army was primarily made up of cavalry, which included about 6,000 horsemen on the right wing, expected to engage the Ottoman cavalry. The central part of the first line consisted of 10,000 to 12,000 infantry, including mercenaries funded by the Papal States to help Hungary in its struggle. The left wing of this first line was weaker, with only around 3,000 horsemen, but they benefited from the natural protection provided by the marshlands of the Danube. Behind them, the second line was far thinner, and comprised mainly of the royal household troops, with King Louis stationed in the center, surrounded by his bodyguard of heavy cavalry and light cavalry. Artillery was positioned in front of both lines, though less concentrated than in the Ottoman formation. Despite this strategic deployment, the Hungarian forces were vulnerable to encirclement. The Hungarian positioning, formed in two lines, was somewhat traditional, and failed to account for the risk of being flanked. Though the layout of the forces had some merit in terms of providing flexibility, the lack of a strong reserve or a more defensively advantageous position ultimately proved costly. On August 29th, the Hungarian forces prepared eagerly, deploying their troops early in the morning, hoping to catch the Ottomans off guard. However, their anticipation proved premature. The Ottomans did not descend from the ridge until around noon. The first to arrive were part of the Ottoman vanguard, weary from a relentless march under the blistering August heat. Sultan Suleiman wisely called a council, and decided to pause the advance, ordering his men to set up camp on the open plain. It was clear that he wasn't going to hastily rush into battle. His men needed rest, time to prepare, and to be in the right mindset to face what was to come. And even then, it took them a full two hours to fully mobilize and bring their forces onto the plain. Meanwhile, the Ottoman light cavalry attempted to outflank the Hungarian right, but Temuri wasn't caught off guard. He quickly sent a detachment from his second line to counter the Akinjis, effectively stalling their progress for the moment. At this stage, the Ottoman vanguard was the only force fully deployed on the plain, busy with their camp preparations. Their cavalry were still making their way down, while the rest of the Ottoman army remained high on the ridge, yet to make their move. By 3 PM, Hungarian commander Temuri, sensing an opportunity, ordered a bold assault on the Ottoman vanguard. With the Ottoman forces still in the process of fully deploying, Temuri aimed to strike quickly and decisively. His strategy was clear, overwhelm the enemy's front lines before they could properly organize and bring the full weight of their army to bear. The plan was audacious, relying on speed and surprise to neutralize the threat in a piecemeal fashion. It was a calculated gamble. Temuri knew the odds were against him. He was vastly outnumbered, but he hoped that a swift and sudden attack could shift the balance. The Hungarian cavalry surged forward, charging with relentless force, catching the Ottomans off guard. The vanguard faltered under the assault, crumbling as the Hungarians inflicted significant damage. Temuri saw an opening and urged King Louis to commit the rest of the forces to the fray. Young King Louis, still wet behind the ears and far from the seasoned leader his men needed, faltered at the pivotal moment. Despite Temuri's initial success in pushing back the Ottoman vanguard, Louis hesitated. Older, more cautious nobles urged restraint, warning against committing fully to battle when the risks were so great. But Louis, eager to the fleeting advantage, ignored their counsel and ordered the Hungarian army to advance. Yet by the time the rest of the Hungarian forces took their positions, the initial shock of Temuri's assault had begun to wane. The Ottomans, regrouping swiftly, were readying themselves to unleash their full might. The chance for a swift victory, once tantalizingly close, was now slipping away. Meanwhile, the Ottomans weren't idle. As Temuri pressed on against the Ottoman front, more and more of Sultan Suleyman's forces were making their way down from the ridge, positioning themselves for battle. The Hungarian right wing, once unstoppable, now found itself bogged down by the heavily fortified Ottoman artillery positions. These cannons weren't mere threats, they could tear through man and beast with ease. Still, the Hungarians pressed forward, their infantry joining the cavalry in a concerted effort to break the Ottoman lines. But Temuri miscalculated the Ottoman deployment. What he failed to account for was just how much of Suleyman's army was yet to arrive. Before the Hungarians could gain a decisive foothold, the full weight of the Ottoman army, now in battle formation and led by Suleyman himself, descended onto the plain. It was the moment of reckoning. When the Hungarian infantry unleashed their musket fire, it tore through their ranks like a storm of lead. Temuri and his men had charged into battle with all the ferocity they could muster, but now they were facing the full wrath of the Ottoman war machine. The momentum they had gained was beginning to falter as the battle swung in favor of the Ottomans. By the time the remainder of the Hungarian army, what was left of the second line and the left wing, could reinforce the right, the situation had already turned dire. The Sultan's forces had fully deployed, tipping the scales in their favor. The Hungarian left wing, already the weakest link, found itself under relentless assault by the Ottoman cavalry, whose numbers and discipline overwhelmed them. The Ottoman artillery and musket fire soon began to splinter the Hungarian lines. The attack, once full of promise, lost its steam, and the rapidly worsened. In a last-ditch effort, the Hungarian cavalry surged to the left wing, hoping to stem the tide and prevent a devastating flank. But reinforcements, though brave, were too few to make a meaningful difference. The Ottomans pushed them back, and panic set in. The Hungarian cavalry, unable to hold their ground, fled northward, leaving the infantry in the center exposed. The Ottomans pressed forward with relentless determination, driving the Hungarian forces toward the Danube. Many were lost in the marshes, their bodies swallowed by the treacherous terrain. Tamori, who had been at the forefront of the charge, is believed to have fallen amidst the chaos, trying to rally his retreating soldiers. The infantry, left to fend for themselves, formed desperate square formations to hold off the Ottoman advance. For a brief moment, it seemed they might stave off total defeat. However, despite their efforts, the Ottomans outnumbered and outgunned them, ultimately breaking through. The Hungarian forces were encircled within an hour and a half, and a brutal massacre ensued. The chaotic close combat led to staggering casualties. Up to 6,000 cavalrymen and over 10,000 infantrymen were lost. The Hungarian nobility also suffered heavy losses, with 16 banner lords and five bishops, including the Archbishop of László Szalkai, perishing in the battle. King Louis II, attempting to flee as the situation grew dire, tragically drowned in the Siel stream, weighed down by his armor. Around 2,000 survivors were taken prisoner and executed on Suleiman's orders. By early September, Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent approached Buda with caution. He was stunned by the small size of the Hungarian resistance, waiting for days on the battlefield, expecting the full strength of Hungary's forces to arrive. But it never came.