History of Ireland: From Celts to English Rule

In folk songs and legends, Ireland is often called the most beautiful of women. This comparison arose not only because of the beauty of Ireland's landscapes, but also due to the constant attempts by foreigners to conquer the island. For over a thousand years, the Irish had to fight for independence, defending their island from numerous invaders. Such was the history of Ireland even during the time of the Celtic Kingdoms, and it would continue long after the English conquest of Ireland. The Celts, who settled in Ireland, partially separated from the rest, forming the Gaels or Goidelic culture. Among the Gaels, their own proto-alphabet was widespread, known as Ogham. Even so, aside from minor differences, the Gaels lived like other Celts on the British Isles, organized into tribes led by chieftains and druids. Unlike Britain, Ireland did not experience an invasion by Roman soldiers. Although there is evidence that the Roman governor in Britain, Agricola, planned to conquer the island, due to difficulties in subjugating Great Britain, Roman legions never reached Ireland. Despite this, there were contacts between the Romans and the Irish. They traded, as evidenced by archaeological finds such as the remains of a Roman settlement on the The Romans referred to the inhabitants of Ireland with the word scoti. This word does not originate from Latin, and is most likely of Celtic origin, though its exact meaning remains unknown. There are several theories suggesting it means crowd, separated, or chosen, but none of these interpretations have unanimous support among historians. In the 5th century, Roman missionaries from Britain brought Christianity to Ireland. There, it became closely associated with the name of St. Patrick. According to legend, he was the one who introduced Christianity to Ireland. The legends say that St. Patrick spread the Latin alphabet among the Irish, founded the first monasteries and schools, and drove all the snakes from the island. Patrick is considered the patron saint of Ireland, and St. Patrick's Day is a national holiday. At the same time, Christianity in Ireland absorbed local pagan traditions. Some Celtic gods even entered the canon of saints. When the Romans left Great Britain in the same 5th century, the island began to be settled from the south by the Anglo-Saxons, while the Scots in Ireland began migrating northward. Their most powerful kingdom, Dalriata, easily took control of the British coastline. As the Scots advanced through the island, they clashed in battles with the local Picts. But over time, the tribes began to merge, and thus a new people, the Scots, emerged. This is how Scotland got its name. As for the origin of the name Ireland, it remains unclear. Ireland developed a unique political system. The land owned by an individual tribe formed an administrative unit known as a tuatha. The tribes were ruled by their chieftains, or re, kings. Kings could extend their authority over several tuatha, in which case they became kings of tribes. The most powerful kings extended their rule over entire provinces and bore the title King over Kings. Such kings could compete for the highest title in Ireland, the High King. This title was more symbolic and did not grant real power over the entire island, yet it was constantly contested. Such a system, with many kings who had the right to continuously compete for power, led to political fragmentation on the island. At its peak, there were over 150 kingdoms in Ireland. In addition to kings, there were also independent bands of warriors known as the Fianna. In legends, they were celebrated both for protecting ordinary Irish people from the tyranny of the powerful, and for defending all of Ireland from foreign invaders. The origin of the title of the High King of Ireland is mostly known through legends. According to them, the first High Kings ruled from the ancient capital of Ireland, Tarra, named after the hill of the same name. Over time, the title of High King began to be adopted by other Irish kings, and the kings of Tarra remained a part of Ireland's legends. Archaeological excavations show that Tarra was indeed an important site in ancient Ireland. It is most likely that there was a significant pagan sanctuary here, and the hill itself was a sacred place for the Irish. Nevertheless, it lost its role with the arrival of Christianity on the island, particularly due to the Curse of Tarra by St. Patrick, which led to the decline of the site. During this period, based on the territories of the kings over kings, four main provinces of Ireland were formed. Ulster in the north, whose name comes from the kingdom of Uli. Connacht in the west, named after the semi-legendary king Conn Catehach. Munster in the south, also named after another semi-legendary king, Yowin Mumu. And Leinster in the east, which got its name from the local tribe. In the center was the kingdom of Mead. The period during which these five kingdoms existed would later be referred to by historians as the Pentarchy. Yet, in reality, there were more kingdoms in Ireland at the time. They were constantly at war with each other, breaking apart or conquering one another. There were no clear borders, and the power of the kingdoms depended entirely on the abilities of their kings. Because of this, throughout their history, the Irish were never able to unite against common enemies or invaders. The alliances they formed were short-lived. The numerous kings of Ireland would quickly recall old conflicts and begin fighting one another, with some even choosing to ally with the invaders. The situation would continue to plague Ireland throughout the Middle Ages. In the early Middle Ages, Ireland was protected from invaders by the fact that European kingdoms simply lacked the fleets to reach the island. On the other hand, soon Viking raiders appeared in the seas of Europe, challenging even the most powerful kings. The Vikings also sailed to Ireland. Already in 795, they plundered a monastery on Lambey Island. In the following years, they raided Ulster and Conant, and by 820, the Vikings had looted almost the entire coastline of Ireland. The Irish referred to the Vikings as Gael, meaning foreigner. In 837, a large Viking warband led by King Tergesius arrived in Ireland. Historians are unsure who this king was, as he is not mentioned in Scandinavian sagas. Even so, Irish chronicles provide a detailed account of his campaign. He invaded Ulster and captured the city of Armagh, the center of Christianity in Ireland. The Vikings looted the cathedral, and they sacrificed captured Irish people to Odin on the ruins of the cathedral. Afterward, Tergesius did not leave the island, but sailed south and settled with his forces at the mouth of the river Liffey. There, the Vikings built their settlement, which they named Dublin. In Irish, Duvlin, meaning black pool, in 840. From Dublin, Tergesius began launching raids deeper into the island, utilizing the rivers, along which the Vikings' longships could sail. During one of these raids, he encountered the king of Mead, Mael Shacknell I. According to legend, the Irish king asked the Viking king what should be done about the troublesome birds living nearby. Tergesius advised the king to destroy their nests. Mael Shacknell followed this advice, and that night, the Irish launched a surprise attack on the Viking camp, killing them all. King Tergesius was captured and executed in captivity. After this, Mael Shacknell focused on expelling the Vikings from the island, defeating their armies. He even received the title of High King of Ireland, becoming the first king whose existence is confirmed in the chronicles. Even though, once again, the political fragmentation of Ireland played a role, Mael Shacknell had to fight not only against the Vikings, but also against other Irish kings, which prevented the Irish from uniting against the new group of Scandinavian invaders. In 853, Dublin was captured by King Olaf the White, or, according to Irish chronicles, King Aulibh. He also became the first king of Dublin. Olaf began raiding both inland Ireland and Great Britain. His largest raid took place in 870, when he plundered the Welsh kingdom of Strathclyde. After Olaf's death, power passed to his companion, King Emar, who is commonly identified by modern historians as the semi-legendary Ivar the Boneless. He ruled for a short time and died in a minor skirmish with the Irish in 873. Emar's descendants inherited the throne of Dublin and began to assimilate into Irish traditions. Despite the fact that the kingdom of Dublin was small, it possessed a powerful fleet, which allowed it to intervene in any other kingdoms on the island. The city itself grew through trade and became the main port in Ireland. The Vikings of this kingdom actively participated in Irish politics, conducted raids on Scotland and England. The E-Ivar dynasty, descendants of Emar, also settled in the kingdom of Jorvik until it was conquered by the English. Certainly, not all the Irish were pleased with the presence of the Vikings on the island. The first attempt to expel the Vikings was the King of Leinster, Karel MacMuirachan. He united the Irish and in 902 AD captured Dublin. Even so, once the Vikings left the island, the Irish kings began to quarrel again and resumed fighting among themselves. When, 15 years later, the Vikings retook Dublin, the Irish tried once more to stop them, but suffered a catastrophic defeat at the Battle of Confi, also known as the Battle of Cienfuech. Not only did the Vikings regain Dublin, but they also captured several new cities in Ireland, including Wexford, Waterford, Cork, and Limerick. Bigger successes were achieved by Brian Boru from the small kingdom of Tomand. Brian was a skilled military leader and had a talent for politics. Since his youth, when his father was killed by the Vikings, he swore to expel the foreigners from Ireland. Using diplomacy and sometimes brute force, Brian united the province of Munster under his rule and then attacked the Vikings who had settled in the west of Ireland. He defeated them at the Battle of Salcoyte and also captured the city of Limerick. After this, the new King of Munster began to extend his power over the rest of the island. In response, the Vikings and several Irish kings formed an alliance against him. They attempted to stop Brian, but in 999 AD, they were defeated at the Battle of Glenmama. Thanks to this victory, Brian Boru expanded his territories, and the Irish looted and burned Dublin. In 1002, Brian Boru firmly consolidated his power over the island when the powerful Einiel clan submitted to him, and Brian was crowned the High King of Ireland. In 1014, the Vikings of Dublin, with the support of their Irish allies and mercenaries from the Kingdom of the Isles, attempted to fight against Brian Boru once more. The armies met at Clontarf. According to the chronicles, the battle lasted the entire day, and over a hundred kings and In total, more than 10,000 warriors died. Only at night did the Vikings, unable to withstand the pressure from the Irish, begin to flee the battlefield. Brian Boru achieved his third great victory over the Vikings, but he himself was killed in the battle. Despite the fact that Brian did not manage to completely drive the Vikings out of Ireland, his victories undermined the power of their kingdom in Dublin. The Vikings lost their influence on the island and began to assimilate rapidly. The Scandinavians in Ireland became most renowned as mercenary warriors, the Gallowglasses. The weakened Kingdom of Dublin did not remain under Viking rule for long. The last Scandinavian to rule Dublin, Gofred Olavsson, managed to hold power for only three years before the Irish finally seized control. After that, the Irish dynasty of E. Canselig began to rule there, albeit with interruptions. The most famous representative of this dynasty, Dermot Mac Mercader, is known for initiating the first English invasion. As the ruler of Leinster from the age of 16, he actively fought for the title of High King. Dermot was exiled from Ireland twice. The first time occurred in 1132 after he plundered the Abbey of Kildare. However, due to disputes among the clans in Leinster, Dermot managed to reclaim his crown later that same year. For twenty long years, Dermot ruled peacefully, until in 1152 he abducted the wife of another Irish king, Tírnan Mór Uarúrch. A war broke out between them, soon drawing in almost all the Irish kings. In 1166, Dermot was exiled from Ireland for the second time. He then went to England, where he sought help from King Henry II. Shortly before that, in 1154, Henry II had received permission from the Pope to conquer Ireland. For Henry, it was an opportunity to expand his own domains, and for the Pope, a way to exert greater influence over the Church in Ireland. Nonetheless, due to ongoing wars in France, Henry II kept postponing the invasion of the island. When Dermot MacMurcudda, or as the English called him, Dermot MacMurrah, approached him for help, Henry was once again engaged in a war in France and could not personally lead the English forces. But he allowed Dermot to recruit English soldiers for the invasion of Ireland. In this way, Dermot enlisted knights from the Welsh marches, who, due to the ongoing wars with the Welsh, were lacking land in England. The first English detachment, led by Lord Robert Fitz Stephen, landed in Ireland in 1169. Robert had only 400 soldiers, but his main advantage was 100 mounted knights and their squires. In addition, King Dermot brought with him 500 Irish warriors. They marched north, defeating the armies of Irish kings one after another. Although the Irish fought bravely, their forces were made up of foot soldiers with light weaponry, and therefore could not withstand the English knights. Within a year, Dermot, with the help of the English, regained control of Leinster. Once again, nearly all the Irish kings united against him, but unable to stand up to the English forces, they were forced to enter negotiations. A treaty was signed in Ferns, according to which Dermot was recognized as the King of Leinster, and in return, he was to send the English out of Ireland. Yet, while these negotiations were taking place, new English troops began arriving on the island. In the summer, another thousand English soldiers landed in Ireland, led by Earl Richard de Clare, better known by his nickname, Strongbow. Dermot saw this as an opportunity to finally become the High King of Ireland. He quickly forgot the treaty signed in Ferns and formed an alliance with Richard de Clare, sealing it by marrying off his daughter to Strongbow. After that, the English forces marched on Dublin and captured the city. The following year, the aging Dermot MacMurcudah died, but Strongbow had no intention of leaving Ireland. At that moment, the Irish launched a counter-offensive. The men of Munster laid siege to Wexford, where they defeated the English and captured Robert Fitzstephen. At the same time, a coalition of Irish kings besieged Dublin. The siege lasted for two months, after which Strongbow defeated the Irish forces outside the walls of Dublin. The English then marched south and regained control of Wexford, and Strongbow declared his claim to the crown of Leinster. King Henry II closely watched the successful conquest of Ireland. He realized that Strongbow could potentially become king of all Ireland, which would pose a threat to the English Plantagenet dynasty. Therefore, in late 1171, Henry II personally arrived in Ireland, bringing with him an army of 4,000 soldiers. This force was intended not so much to confront the Irish rulers as to keep Strongbow in check, in case he decided to rebel against his king. Though Henry had overestimated his earl, Strongbow almost immediately swore loyalty to him, and in return was granted possession of Leinster. Along with him, most of the Irish kings also swore allegiance to Henry. They retained their lands and authority, though they were now vassals of the English king. After appointing a governor, Henry returned to Aquitaine, and clashes in Ireland continued due to ongoing political fragmentation. Now, alongside the endless struggles between Irish kings, English lords joined the fray. In 1174, Strongbow invaded Munster, but was defeated in the Battle of Turlas. Henry II made several attempts to strengthen his control. In 1175, he signed a treaty with High King of Ireland, Ruri-ua-Concubur, the Treaty of Windsor. According to the agreement, Ireland was divided into two parts, the English-controlled lands, held by English lords, and the Irish-controlled lands, ruled by Ruri and the native Irish kings. Instead of swearing fealty as a vassal, the High King was required only to pay tribute to Not surprisingly, no one intended to honor that treaty either. So, after a series of clashes, in 1177 Henry made another attempt to strengthen his authority by proclaiming his youngest son, John, as King of Ireland. Yet, the new king first visited the island only in 1185, and the trip was a failure. John quarreled with the Irish kings, they rose in rebellion, and he was forced to flee. It wasn't until 1210 that John returned with an army and restored English control over the island. Throughout the 13th century, the English steadily expanded their influence in Ireland, gradually seizing more and more territory. Naturally, the Irish tried to resist them, but by the year 1300, most of the island's land, mainly the fertile plains, was in the hands of English lords, while the Irish kings held territory mostly on the fringes of the island, in marshy or mountainous regions. During this period, the most powerful Irish clan became the O'Neills, who held out against English rule longer than any other. A new phase of Irish resistance against the English began through events in Scotland. In 1314, Robert the Bruce defeated the English and liberated Scotland. He understood that to continue resisting England, he needed allies. Robert decided to free Ireland from English rule, aiming to make it a Scottish ally in future conflicts. In 1315, a Scottish army of 5,000 soldiers, led by Robert's younger brother Edward Bruce, landed in Ulster. In the Battle of Connor, the Scots defeated the local English garrison and gained support from the Irish, primarily from the O'Neill clan. Edward Bruce marched south, where he defeated another English army at the Battle of Kells. Nonetheless, the Scots were unable to hold the captured territory, so they simply plundered local towns and returned north. The following year, in 1316, Edward declared himself High King of Ireland and once again defeated the English at the Battle of Scarys. From then on, Edward's strategy largely consisted of raiding expeditions deeper into the island. Soon, due to war, looting, and drought, famine broke out in Ireland. The Irish began to blame the Scots, and as a result, many abandoned Edward Bruce's army. Exhausted by the prolonged war, the Scots could no longer withstand the English, who continued to receive reinforcements from England. By 1318, the English launched an effort to drive Edward out of Ireland. The armies met at the Battle of Fard, where the English defeated the Scots and Edward was killed in the fighting. It seemed that after the failure of this campaign, no one would be able to drive the English out of Ireland. But in the mid-14th century, the bubonic plague, known as the Black Death, swept across Europe. It reached Ireland in 1348. The different lifestyles of the English and the Irish played a key role during the epidemic. The English lived mainly in towns and cities, while the Irish lived in rural villages. Since the plague struck hardest in urban areas, most of the English population in Ireland was wiped out. English settlements were left nearly deserted, and those English who survived the plague often fled the island. By 1360, the English in Ireland were living only in the area around Dublin, where their territory was known as the English Pale, even though on paper they still claimed all of Ireland as their domain. Since most of the English population in Ireland had vanished, Irish culture began to flourish once again. This cultural resurgence became known in history as the Gaelic Revival. The English responded with strict prohibitions. In 1367, they issued the Statute of Kilkenny, a set of laws that forbade the English in Ireland from adopting the Irish language, traditions, or customs. In 1394, King Richard II of England decided to reconquer Ireland. His first campaign met with some success. He managed to capture a number of Irish territories in the south and east of the island. These lands were granted to his loyal lords, with the Fitzgerald family, who had been in Ireland since Strongbow's invasion in 1170, receiving the largest share. Richard II's second campaign in Ireland was far less successful, due to the fact that the English throne was seized by Henry Bolingbroke. Richard was forced to hastily return to England. Throughout the 15th century, the English once again had little focus on Ireland. First, they were drawn into the renewed conflict of the Hundred Years' War, and later, England was engulfed in the Wars of the Roses. During this civil war, the English lords in Ireland mostly supported the House of York. When the Tudors seized the throne, Ireland became a launchpad for uprisings, most notably the rebellion of Lambert Simnel in 1487 and that of Perkin Warbeck in 1492. In the end, Ireland in the early 16th century differed little from ancient times. In 1516, English officials described it as follows. Over 60 counties are under the control of enemies of the crown. There rule more than 60 chieftains who call themselves kings, live by war, and obey no one. There are also 30 English lords in Ireland who follow the same Irish ways. Each of them makes war or peace without asking the king's permission. In reality, Ireland had existed in this fragmented state for centuries, and the 16th century brought no real change to the island. But this time it was England that had changed. It had become a centralized state with the king wielding nearly absolute power. The new king, Henry VIII, intended to extend that same authority over Ireland. At this point, it's worth mentioning the Fitzgerald family. Gerald Fitzgerald, the Earl of Kildare, like many others, fought both against Irish clans and against rival English lords, all while largely ignoring orders from London. Because of this, he was twice summoned to the English capital and imprisoned in the Tower of London. The first time, in 1526, he spent four years there. But after being summoned again in 1534, Gerald never returned. He was imprisoned once more, this time for killing Irishmen loyal to the English crown, and died in the tower. While Gerald Fitzgerald was imprisoned in the tower, the Earldom of Kildare was governed by his eldest son Thomas, better known as Silken Thomas. When rumors reached him that his father had been executed, Thomas raised an army and declared himself King of Ireland, openly defying the English monarch. His forces quickly seized most of the English-held territories in Ireland. Nevertheless, he failed to capture Dublin. In 1535, he suffered a defeat outside the city walls. Soon after, English troops under Leonard Grey arrived in Ireland and recaptured the Kildare lands. Fitzgerald continued to fight against the royal troops, but suffered several defeats. He had hoped to gain support from the Eventually, at the end of 1535, Fitzgerald surrendered to the royal forces and met the same fate as his father. He was sent to London and executed the following year. The English troops never left Ireland. They marched across the island, forcing Irish rulers to swear allegiance to Henry VIII. To consolidate their power over the island, the English confiscated lands from Irish clans and returned them as private property to Irish kings, who now became ordinary landlords. Thus, the O'Neills became Earls of Tyrone, the O'Briens, Earls of Tomand, and the Macburks, who were originally of English descent but had assimilated, became Earls of Clanricard. This land policy became known as Surrender and Regrant, and in 1542, Henry VIII crowned himself King of Ireland, thereby formally securing the English crown's authority over the island. Thus, by the end of the Middle Ages, Ireland, after centuries of fragmentation, had come entirely under English control. Or so the English thought. In reality, a new chapter of prolonged struggle was about to begin, as the Irish continued to rise up in rebellion against the conquerors, relentlessly fighting for their freedom.