RABBAN BAR SAUMA DOCUMENTARY PART 2 - THE MARCO POLO FROM CHINA

February 1281. For the past couple of years, Barsama and his student Marcus, now named Yabalaha, have been staying in an historian monastery of the Ilkhanate. Unable to reach Jerusalem, the destination they set for when leaving China, and forced into official religious positions, their frustration is great. However, this period of stagnation is about to come to an end. After two successive dreams of religious glory, the approximately 40-year-old Yabalaha, perplexed, sought counsel from his teacher. After much thinking, Barsama interpreted Yabalaha's vision as a premonition that his student was to become the next patriarch of the Nestorian church. Convinced, Yabalaha travelled to Baghdad to exchange with Mardinha I, the leader of the faith. Upon arriving, he was astonished to learn that the patriarch had just died. The Nestorian church, leaderless, subsequently debated on who should succeed Mardinha I. Fulfilling Barsama's prediction, its clergymen decided to select Yabalaha. Despite not being versed in the Syriac language, he knew the Mongol tongues and customs well, and his religious devotion was unquestionable, making him a perfect leader for Nestorianism in the Ilkhanate. Ecstatic, Yabalaha promptly returned north to inform his teacher, and they travelled to see the Ilkhan Abaga for official approval. Familiar with Yabalaha, and appreciative of his Mongolic background, Abaga promptly gave his blessings to the patriarch-to-be. Subsequently, Barsama's student was elevated as Yabalaha III in November 1281, at approximately 40 years old. During the following months, the new patriarch settled in his new functions. Assisted by Barsama, he would carry on with his religious duties in Baghdad. However, the two Nestorians would soon once again find themselves in a precarious situation. On the 4th of April 1282, the Ilkhan Abaga died at 48 years old. Upon decision through a Khureltai, or Mongol council, he was succeeded by his younger brother, Tekudar. This most frustrated 24-year-old nephew, Arhun, the son of the late Ilkhan, who believed himself a more legitimate successor. Although baptized a Nestorian Christian as a child, Tekudar had converted to Islam and adopted the name Ahmed. The new Ilkhan proved to be a devout Muslim. He was convinced to stop the war with the Mamluks, and hosted frequent religious ceremonies to the detriment of the governance of the state. Subsequently, in 1283, a civil war started in the Ilkhanate, opposing rebelling Prince Arhun in the Khurasan region to the Muslim Ilkhan. Reportedly, Barsama and Yakhbalaha III wrote a message to Kubilai Khan in China, the official overlord of the Mongol Khanates, essentially accusing Tekudar of betraying the Mongol cause. Whether they truly wrote such a message or not, both Nestorians were promptly arrested and tried. In the face of the Ilkhan's anger, it seemed the two Nestorians sent from China would meet their end by death penalty in the Ilkhanate. However, Tekudar's mother, a Nestorian Christian, intervened and had the religious men released. Nonetheless, Barsama and Yakhbalaha III's situation remained tenuous. As months went by, the Ilkhan seemed to gain control of the military situation against his nephew, Arhun. However, in a surprising turn of events, Tekudar was captured and handed over to his nephew, the rebelling Prince. After much hesitation, Arhun decided in favour of his The following day, he ascended the throne as the new Ilkhan. Barsama and Yakhbalaha III, relieved to see a more favourable Khan in power, promptly visited Arhun at his camp to pay their respects. The latter, probably aware of who they were, understood the two Nestorians could be important assets. Indeed, the civil conflict within the Ilkhanate had left it at the mercy of its neighbours, the Golden Horde in the north, the Chagatai Khanate to the west, and the Mamluks in the east. Arhun needed to forge alliances. One possibility was evident. For the past couple of centuries, the Papacy and Christian kingdoms of Europe had repeatedly organised crusades in the Holy Land, aiming to capture Jerusalem and its surroundings from Muslim control. By 1284, only puny remnants of the once mighty crusader states desperately held on the shores of Palestine against Mamluk onslaughts. Seeking to ally against the latter, Arhun turned to Christian Europe. In 1285, he sent a multilingual Nestorian astronomer, Isa Khelmerchi, once an official of Emperor Kubalai's court, as an ambassador to Pope Honorius IV, discussing the possibility of attacking the Muslims together. As the land of the Muslims, that is Syria and Egypt, is placed between us and you, we will encircle and strangle it. We will send our messengers to ask you to send an army to Egypt, so that us on one side and you on the other, we can, with good warriors, take it over. Let us know through secure messengers when you would like this to happen. We will chase the Saracens, with the help of the Lord, the Pope and the Great Khan. Nothing, however, came of this first embassy to Europe. Undeterred, two years later, Arhun sought to send another ambassador and renew the proposition to the Pope. Once again, the Ilkhan wished to pick a Nestorian, fluent in several languages and knowledgeable in religious matters, as well as used to travelling across lands through different cultures. The choice was evident. Influential Patriarch Yakhbalakh III, involved in the politics of the Ilkhanate, suggested to Arhun to select his old teacher, Barsauma. The Nestorian monk, despite being over 60 years old, enthusiastically agreed to the mission of travelling to Europe. During the following weeks, Barsauma prepared for yet another voyage. In Tabriz, the Ilkhan gave him letters for the Pope in Rome and the Christian kings, as well as much gold, many horses and an escort. The Nestorian, however, first travelled south to Baghdad to bid farewell to his student and old friend, Yakhbalakh III. Much like Arhun, the Patriarch gave him letters and gifts for the Pope. Eventually, time came for Barsauma to leave Baghdad and he and Yakhbalakh III wept. For over a quarter of a century, the two had been nearly constantly side by side, sharing hardships and joys. In early 1287, the embassy departed and set the course for their first stop on the way to Rome, Constantinople. Although Barsauma's exact itinerary is unclear, he likely followed caravan routes to the port of Samsun, which he reached around June, where the Maritime Republic of Genoa had founded a commercial colony only two years prior. There, the Nestorian diplomat reportedly embarked on a ship hosting 300 souls and sailed on the Black Sea for a few days before landing at Constantinople, the city where Nestorianism was born. As a diplomatic embassy, the party was received graciously by the struggling and declining Byzantine Empire. Barsauma, the main diplomat and a respected Christian elder, was taken to a mansion where he would be hosted during his stay. After a short rest, the embassy was received by Byzantine Emperor Andronicus II. The political matters discussed, if any, were however not recorded in history and the meeting between the Ilkhanid envoy and the Byzantine Emperor seemingly had no diplomatic impact, leaning more towards an exchange of courtesies. This done, an eager Barsauma promptly requested to visit the holy sites of Constantinople. With a group of nobles of the city acting as guides for the Nestorian monk, he was taken to see churches, monasteries and of course the famous Ria Sophia, the largest cathedral of the world at the time. The visit of this gem of Christian architecture and indeed incredible achievement of humanity left him speechless in contemplation. It is impossible to describe to one who has not seen it. For an ascetic monk who had spent most of his life withdrawn from the world, it certainly was a moving sight. After concluding his tour of Constantinople with many more sites and various relics, Barsauma returned to thank the Byzantine Emperor and request departure. Andronicus II gave him further gold and silver for the voyage. The Ilkhanid envoy and his party embarked once more, this time set for the Italian peninsula. Rabban Barsauma and his party would sail for approximately two months, a surprisingly long extent of time, in a tiresome journey, yet with one great surprise. On the 18th of June, as the ship went by the coast of Sicily, her passengers witnessed an extraordinary event. A mountain from which all day long smoke ascends and by night fire is exhibited, and none can approach its neighbourhood for the smell of the sulphur. The volcano of Mount Etna had erupted. In the summer, the embassy disembarked in Naples, capital of the kingdom of the same name. Although they had left the violent climate of the Middle East, Barsauma and his party would find themselves once more amidst conflict. This time in the heart of it, as they had just landed in the middle of the war of the Sicilian Vespers. After they were greeted in the city and had a brief audience with King Charles II of Naples, they were lent a mansion to stay in. Barsauma recalls watching from atop its roof, a massive naval battle which broke out in the bay of Naples, certainly the battle of the counts, opposing the kingdom of Naples to the kingdom of Aragon. The Nestorian was impressed that the fighting did not turn to widespread massacre of civilians, the kind of warfare he was familiar with in the Mongolic world. The embassy did not linger in Naples and soon departed by horse to travel inland towards Rome. This heartening news would however tarnish its enthusiasm. Pope Honorius IV, the man which they had been tasked to meet with, was dead. By July, the party finally arrived in Rome after half a year of travelling since Baghdad. The Ilkhanid envoy was possibly taken to St. Peter's Basilica itself and greeted by a council, likely numbering 12 cardinals, assembled to elect a new pope. Once introduced, Barsauma was given a luxurious place to stay in while in Rome. After three days of rest, the council summoned Barsauma for an audience, eager to know more about the Nestorian's personal, religious and political experience. Although the envoy mentioned Arhun Khan's wish to ally with Christendom against the Mamluks, the cardinals knew they could not agree to such terms without a pope. The conversation thus changed to theological debates as they were intrigued by the differences between the Catholic and Nestorian faiths, which Barsauma certainly shrewdly downplayed. The cardinals asked about the patriarch of Nestorianism, his good friend Yarpalaha, and were amazed to learn that many Mongols, including Khans, were Christians. After lengthy exchanges, the Ilkhanid envoy requested to visit Rome's holy sites and was given clergymen as guides for his stay in Rome by the cardinals. The Nestorian would be offered extensive tours of most churches and basilicas, such as St. Peter's or St. Paul outside the walls, and many various shrines and relics, such as the tomb of St. Peter, the chains of St. Paul the Apostle, and the collection of heads and hands of various saints. But Barsauma could not waste months in Rome waiting for the cardinals to elect the new pope. In the meantime, he prepared his departure to visit the Christian kings, planning to see the king of France first. After several days or weeks in Rome, the envoy informed the cardinals of his leaving and moved on with his diplomatic party. After passing through Tuscany, the embassy halted in Genoa. At that time, the Maritime Republic was somewhat of a golden age. The Nestorian describes being greeted into the city by its crowds and chief, and visiting the cathedral of St. Lawrence, where he was shown artifacts such as the Sacro Catino, a piece of glassware brought back from the Crusades, claimed to be the dish off of which Jesus Christ ate the Last Supper. After some rest, the embassy moved towards their next objective, the capital of the Kingdom of France, Paris. The exact itinerary Barsauma and his party took are not mentioned, but by the end of September 1287, they had arrived at the gates of the city. The 19-year-old king of France, Philippe le Bel, or Philippe the Fair, once informed of the envoy's presence, sent out a greeting party to graciously receive the travellers and bring them to a place to rest. After three days, King Philippe received them, Barsauma presented himself, explained the reasons why he had come, and presented the monarch with the letters and gifts from the Ilkhanate. Upon learning of the intentions of Arhun Khan, Philippe declared that God willing, he and his knights would fight alongside the Mongols against the Mamluks for the Holy Land. After nine months of travelling, the embassy finally seemed to be bearing fruit. After the audience, Barsauma engaged in his now customary tour of the city to visit the holy sites. He was shown the Basilica of Saint-Denis, necropolis of all Frankish and French kings except Charlemagne since the 8th century. It would remain the burial place of the French kings up until the 19th century. The Nestorian would remain in Paris for a month. During his stay, he was greatly impressed with the immense quantity of students whose studies were financed by the crown. Indeed, by the late 12th century, the French capital was a renowned place of knowledge, as its university had been founded only a few decades ago and since then constantly expanded. Barsauma reported a likely exaggerated 30,000 students in the city. Young king Philippe, aware of his Nestorian visitor's upcoming departure, decided he would show him a much holiest site. The French monarch took Barsauma to the Sainte-Chapelle or Holy Chapel, private chapel of the French kings built 40 years ago, into a room which the Nestorian described as a chamber of gold. Inside, encased in crystal, were displayed two of the most holy kinds of relics, a supposed fragment of the true cross upon which Jesus Christ was crucified and the crown of thorns. These two relics had been obtained during the Crusades and hosted in the Sainte-Chapelle built for the occasion. Barsauma was certainly amazed to see these artefacts. On this religious note, his trip in Paris came to an end. King Philippe presented him with gifts and an ambassador to join him on the voyage back to the Ilkhanate. There was, however, another Christian king that the Nestorian was planning to see on his mission, Edward I, the famous Longshanks, king of England. At the time, the monarch was in fact in Bordeaux, overseeing the region of Aquitaine as its duke. Edward I, king of England, was indeed technically a vassal of Philippe le Bel, king of France, having paid the homage ceremony to him only the previous year. From Paris, Barsauma's embassy reportedly travelled to Bordeaux in 20 days. Upon arrival, it was immediately taken to Edward's court. Barsauma promptly presented the gifts and letters from Arjun to the king of England. As Edward I read the Ilkhan's offer, he showed profound enthusiasm to fight for Jerusalem. Once the audience over, the king of England asked Barsauma to conduct the Eucharist, taking the sacrament from him, and hosted a great banquet in the evening. Barsauma requested as usual to visit the churches and holy sites of the land for the purpose of telling the story back in the Ilkhanate. However, such a tour, if it happened, is not described in sources. Instead, Edward I proudly told Barsauma to say when he returned that Western Europe was not a land divided by religion, but united under the Roman Catholic faith. For the envoy's return trip, Edward I gifted the embassy with precious gifts and money to cover the travelling expenses. It was time to leave France. The embassy left for Rome, hoping to finally see a Pope there. It, however, halted in Genoa for the winter. Barsauma mentioned how enjoyable the city's climate was, neither too hot in the summer, as he had experienced it on the way to France, nor too cold during winter. As the envoy was resting in Genoa, a cardinal and papal legate back from a mission in Germany heard that Barsauma, who had by now become somewhat of a celebrity, was heading to Rome. He subsequently met in exchange with an historian, who reportedly lamented that they had been in Europe for half a year now and there was still no Pope to receive the Ilkhan's embassy. The papal legate subsequently offered to travel to Rome and pressed the cardinals on accelerating the papal election. Nonetheless, by the time he arrived, the deed had been done. On the 15th of February 1288, the seven surviving cardinals of the council, the others having died, had elected Girolamo Masci as Pope, who took the name of Nicholas IV. The latter therefore became the first Pope of the Franciscan order in history. Upon receiving the news, Barsauma promptly left Genoa for Rome and arrived there in the beginning of March. The Nestorian was delighted to discover that he in fact personally knew Pope Nicholas IV, as they had met the past year when he was still a cardinal. As they met again, Barsauma kissed the Pope's hands and feet and gave him a laudatory greeting. He could finally deliver his gifts and letters from Ilkhan Arhun and Patriarch Yakhbalaha III and was subsequently invited to rest and enjoy the city. Barsauma would remain in Rome for Easter, occasionally conducting Christian ceremonies alongside the Pope. After many more days of religious rituals, Barsauma, by now probably homesick, eventually asked Pope Nicholas IV for permission to return to the Ilkhanate. The latter asked him to stay in Rome, however, Barsauma reminded the Catholic leader that he was not in Europe of his own accord and had to complete his diplomatic mission. After a year of voyage, it was time for him to return. The Nestorian however made to the Pope the surprising request that he be given holy relics to bring back to the Ilkhanate. After some hesitation, the Pope conceded to exceptionally grant Barsauma his wish. He organised a fragment of clothing of Jesus Christ and one of his mother Mary as well as various relics of saints. For Patriarch Yakhbalaha III, the Pope gave Barsauma a golden crown encrusted with jewels, precious clothes for his position and a letter of confirmation of his spiritual authority. Nicholas IV added a letter and gifts for the Ilkhan and a letter of confirmation for Barsauma's status of visitor general. Finally, as a response to Arjun's offer of an alliance, the Pope merely suggested in a letter that he and his men should be baptised to guarantee their victory. Barsauma's return trip is not detailed, although we know he journeyed on the seas again and eventually arrived safely at the court of Arjun. When the Ilkhan heard how well his ideas were received in Europe, he was delighted and considered the mission a success. Arjun promised to set up a tent church for Barsauma at his personal camp which would follow the Mongol leader everywhere he would go and not trouble the Nestorian with other great expeditions in the Soon, Patriarch Yakhbalaha III was summoned to the Ilkhan's camp. After greeting the Mongol leader and his old master, he was given his own set of letters and gifts from Europe. The satisfied Ilkhan decided to organise a great feast which lasted for three days. He was greatly pleased with Barsauma's work and as such his image of the Nestorians and their faith significantly improved. Barsauma though would thereafter stay out of politics and dedicate his life to his religion. For an ascetic monk from a mountain in China, he had indeed had his fair share. Despite the European leader's enthusiasm, no effective alliance would ever be forged with the Mongols. The Mamluks, unchallenged, effectively crushed the last remnants of That same year, the Ilkhan died and was succeeded by his half-brother, Gaikhatu. The over 70-year-old Barsauma, weary of travelling with the Ilkhan's camp everywhere it went, asked the new Mongol leader for permission to leave and establish his own sedentary church in Maraghe. Gaikhatu granted the elderly man his wish and with the patronage of both the Ilkhan and Yakhbalaha III, Barsauma was able to promptly complete his edifice, which reportedly hosted many relics and was adorned with the finest ritual equipment. With this final accomplishment, old Barsauma travelled in 1293 to Baghdad to visit and assist his old friend, the Patriarch. Incidentally, at the same period, Marco Polo was returning from China where he had spent 17 years. He landed at Hormuz and crossed the Ilkhanate to Tabriz to meet the Ilkhan and then to Trebizond to return to Europe. It is not impossible that he and Barsauma consequently met and exchanged about their mutual and somewhat mirror experiences, though this cannot be proven. In October 1293, the Ilkhan's cousin and soon-to-be successor Baidu organized a feast in honour of Yakhbalaha III. Amongst the guests, Barsauma reportedly collapsed in fever during the festivities. A lifetime of ordeals had finally caught up to him. Despite his state, he would accomplish a final voyage to the city of Arbil for social and administrative religious motives. By then deeply ill, his health plummeted day after day. Nonetheless, he was able to hold on until his friend Yakhbalaha III returned from his duties to see him once more. They both knew Barsauma's time had come. The two seemingly shared a last trip together back to Baghdad, where in January 1294, the old Nestorian finally succumbed after a life of adventure, obstacles and devotion. Likely on Yakhbalaha's instructions, Barsauma was interred with great honours alongside all the previous Nestorian patriarchs. Now alone, his old student wept and mourned for three days. With Barsauma's passing, it seemed as the Nestorian church itself diminished. The following year, the new Ilkhan Ghazan would convert to Islam, which would grow to be virtually the only religion in the Ilkhanate. Born in China in the 1220s, Barsauma spent most of his life as an ascetic monk in a mountain. However, his destiny was to become one of the greatest adventurers of history. Guided by his faith, his travels would bring him before six khans, one emperor, three kings and the pope. However fruitless, he partook in a great diplomatic mission from east to west and witnessed some of the greatest buildings and relics of the Christian faith. Incidentally, back in his birthplace of Khan Balik, Emperor Kublai of the Yuan dynasty, the first monarch Barsauma had met died nearly at the same time as him. Much like the other fractions of the Mongol empire, such as the Ilkhanate, the Yuan dynasty was about to undergo great turmoil. Thank you for watching my video, I hope you enjoyed it. If so, please leave a like and subscribe to the channel. If you have any questions or requests, feel free to leave them in the comment section below.