AMBITIOUS MING EXPANSION: THE YONGLE EMPEROR'S REIGN

How does a usurper become a respected ruler? After seizing the throne through rebellion against his own nephew, the ambitious Yongle Emperor, 3rd of the Ming Dynasty, was determined to prove his worth. Discover how he transformed the course of the dynasty and shaped his legacy. July 1402, Ming Dynasty. On the dragon throne sits 42-year-old Zhu Di, the Yongle Emperor. Nanjing is still in chaos following the violent civil war that has brought him to the throne. Before Yongle can embark on his ambitious projects, he has to stabilize his fragile power. Having overthrown his nephew, the rightful Jianwen Emperor, Zhu Di desperately needs legitimacy. Yongle's first actions as emperor involved a sweeping purge of his remaining enemies. Military commanders loyal to the Jianwen Emperor were swiftly imprisoned or executed. But the civil elite also counted many staunch loyalists, including the three closest advisors of Jianwen, Qi Tai, Huang Zicheng and Fang Xiaoru. The first two had already signed their own death warrant by ardently advising Jianwen into purging the princes, the event which had triggered the civil war. They were condemned to Lingchi, slow slicing or death by a thousand cuts, just a week after Yongle's ascension. Fang Xiaoru's case, however, was not so straightforward. Fang had never supported the purging of the princes. Renowned for his unwavering moral integrity, he could become a pivotal asset for Yongle if he could be persuaded to join the emperor. Thus, the monarch requested that the official write a document legitimizing his rebellion and accession. Unyielding in his principles, Fang Xiaoru not only refused, but openly denounced Yongle as a usurper. The emperor responded with unprecedented ruthlessness. Fang was sentenced to Lingchi, but the punishment didn't end with his gruesome execution. His close family, extended family and even his friends and his students, nearly 900 people, were all put to death. By including Fang's friends and students, Yongle had extended the most extreme form of capital punishment, the nine familial exterminations, to the tenth rank, the only such occurrence in history. If anyone still plotted to undermine his power, they would be swiftly apprehended by the Jinyi or embroidered uniformed guard. Originally created by the Hongwu emperor, this secret police agency was revived and strengthened, given the power to arbitrarily arrest, torture and imprison anyone, from ordinary citizens to powerful elites. Much like on the Hongwu, the Jinyi Wei soon became notorious for its cruelty and corruption, extracting bribes from innocent civilians. This brutal purge of his enemies completed, the emperor turned his efforts to bolster his military power. Yongle ennobled the generals which had defected to him during the war, and especially those that had followed him from the get-go, out of which many were Mongols. Such commanders were rewarded with prestigious titles, ranks and stipends. Despite his autocratic rule, the emperor's reign would not mirror his father's, while he would still at times violently punish officials who frustrated him, the sweeping political purge after his accession would be his only one. To form his government, Yongle would place his trust in a select group of eminent scholars, offering them influential official positions. In August, he appointed seven scholars from the prestigious Hanlin Academy, which hosted the elite of the empire's literati, as Grand Secretaries. The Grand Secretariat, initially a simple administrative tool, would gradually evolve into the central executive body of the Ming Empire, dominating the bureaucracy. In addition, Yongle appointed skilled and seasoned scholars to lead the six ministries. Together with the Grand Secretaries, they would enjoy some degree of autonomy and durable stay in office. This approach would allow a stable and efficient administration throughout Yongle's reign, which would enforce consistent and coherent policies. Alongside these regular officials, the emperor also empowered a significant number of loyal eunuchs to serve in his court and for special missions, further consolidating his control. Within a few months, Yongle had stabilized his power, established his government and secured his military. Yet many officials, often aligned with Neo-Confucianist values, still viewed him as a ruthless usurper who had displaced a rightful and benevolent ruler. To solidify his legitimacy, the monarch would simply write his own history and arrange details in his biography. Through works like the Fang Tian Jing Nan Ji, the Veritable Records and many others, Jianwen was portrayed as a weak, inattentive emperor dominated by tyrannical officials, while Yongle was described as the heroic savior of the realm. These revisions may have included his own birth, as he was presented as the son of the late Empress Ma rather than one of Hongwu's concubines. To further embellish his image and appear as a compassionate ruler, as well as to lay the foundations for a prospering population, Yongle turned his focus to the common people. He implemented temporary tax reductions across the Ming Empire, with full exemptions for regions ravaged by the civil war. Relief programs were swiftly dispatched to disaster-stricken regions, and areas plagued by banditry were pacified through a mix of repression and leniency. Finally, many common prisoners were granted amnesty. Sitting on a stable throne, the Yongle emperor could now truly begin his grand projects. While Yongle was firmly established in Nanjing, his heart remained in the north. He had no intention of abandoning his former fief of Beiping. In February 1403, he renamed the city Beijing, northern capital, setting the stage for his upcoming endeavors. To manage the burgeoning city, he entrusted Zhu Gaozhi, his eldest son, who had previously displayed exceptional administrative skills. After three years of civil war, Beijing's population had plummeted. To revitalize the area, Yongle ordered the relocation of thousands of households from neighboring Shanxi province, which greatly boosted the population of what would soon become the heart of the Ming Empire. Fully embracing his duties as a Chinese emperor, Zhu Di conducted an elaborate state ritual in Nanjing's Temple of Confucius in April 1403, honoring the revered thinker. Further reassuring the distrustful Neo-Confucian scholars, Yongle would also sponsor and patronize a variety of literary endeavors, showcasing his cultural ambitions. Notably, in August, he commissioned the compilation of the Yongle Encyclopedia, or Yongle Dadian, an extensive and comprehensive work referencing a myriad of precious writings across subjects such as classics, history, philosophy, medicine, and religion. This monumental project was undertaken by elite Hanlin academicians, initially directed by Grand Secretary Xie Jin and later by trusted advisor and monk Yao Guangxiao. It would be completed after nearly five years in early 1408. Unfortunately, less than 5% of the original 23,000 chapters have survived to this day. Although his own position was unquestionable, Yongle needed to designate an heir to secure the future of his empire. His eldest son, Zhugao Xu, presented fragile health and lacked interest in military affairs, which starkly contrasted with his second son, Zhugao Xu. An athletic and keen militarist, Gao Xu had distinguished himself during the civil war, even saving the emperor in dire situations. The third son, Zhugao Sui, was largely unremarkable, eliminating him from consideration. Despite his aversion to warfare, Zhugao Xu was far from incompetent in strategy. He had brilliantly organized the defense of Beiping during its siege in the civil war. His evident administrative talents and behavioral stability also shined against the more unpredictable Zhugao Xu. After consideration, Yongle decided to appoint him as a crown prince in May 1404. Gao Xu was made prince of Han, while Zhugao Sui became prince of Zhao. However, the unruly Gao Xu would refuse to settle in his fiefdom of Yunnan and frequently undermine his elder brother by slandering his political allies. Notably, Grand Secretary Xie Jin would thus fall from grace in 1407, ultimately being killed by the Jin Yiwei. But for the time being, Yongle had a designated successor. Immediate internal matters well settled, the emperor began shifting his focus beyond the borders of the Ming Empire. Transgressing Hongwu's isolationist policies, Yongle intended to actively engage with the outside world. In 1403, he offered a patent and gold seal to King Taejong of the Korean Joseon dynasty, confirming the nation as a vassal to the Ming. But his eyes soon focused on Central Asia. The emperor dispatched diplomats to the many small oasis states of the region, some of which, such as Hami, agreed to become vassals of the Ming dynasty, gaining lucrative access to trade with China. However, all were not so diplomatic. Timur, or Tamerlane, at the head of the empire he had built, executed the Ming envoys, as he had done with previous diplomatic missions on the Hongwu. Enraged by the Ming court's tone, which regarded foreign nations as inferior, Timur assembled a massive army of 200,000 men for a full-scale invasion of the Ming Empire. History could have witnessed a formidable clash of great empires, but in an anticlimactic twist, the old Timur died of illness en route in mid-February 1405. His successors, unwilling to pursue the campaign, preferred to cultivate diplomacy and trade between both empires. Thus, from 1405 onward, regular missions would go back and forth between China and the Timurid Empire, led by eunuchs such as Li Da and experienced diplomats such as Chen Chong. Central Asian horses, camels, precious stones and metals flowed into the Ming dynasty in exchange for silk, porcelain and paper money. Yet Yongle's most ambitious foreign endeavours would concern maritime exploration. In September 1403, he ordered coastal regions and cities to begin shipbuilding on an unprecedented scale. Over many months, a huge fleet was gradually assembled including warships, transport ships, supply ships, equine ships for carrying horses and valuables, and most importantly, a new kind of craft, the Baochuan, or treasure ship. These colossal vessels constructed at the Nanjing shipyard reportedly spanned 450 feet about 140 meters from bow to stern, although modern estimates suggest a more realistic, yet still astounding length of 250 feet about 75 meters. This treasure fleet, comprising 255 ships carrying 27,000 men, mostly soldiers, was entrusted to Yongle's loyal unit commander, Ma He, whom the emperor renamed Zheng He. He was to venture overseas to display Ming power, establish diplomatic ties and trade with distant nations, and especially make them tributaries to the empire. Following extensive preparations, the first expedition set sail on the 11th of July 1405. During this pioneering voyage, Zheng He reached southern Vietnam, Java, Malacca, Sumatra, Sri Lanka and India, and defeated a notorious pirate fleet on the way back, returning over two years later, in October 1407. He would go on to complete six more voyages, eventually reaching the coasts of Africa. Although Yongle presented himself as dutifully following his father's injunctions, he would blatantly violate one in what would become a strategic fiasco, invading northern Vietnam. After having governed the region, known as Annam, for nearly two centuries, the local Qian dynasty was overthrown in 1400 by Hou Guili, a prominent official and general who established his own Hou dynasty. Informed that the Qian line had naturally ended and been succeeded by legitimate relatives, Yongle initially recognised the Hou dynasty. However, when a desperate Qian pretender eventually made his way to Nanjing and revealed the usurpation, the emperor grew furious. Yongle promptly dispatched a mission demanding the pretender's restoration, but Hou Guili's ambitions would not be so easily suppressed. When the mission crossed the border in April 1406, it was ambushed by Hou forces and massacred. For the Yongle emperor, the events were no longer a foreign domestic issue. This was war. Preparing for a full-fledged punitive campaign, Yongle appointed the following month's general Zhu Nang, assisted by Zhang Fu, both were veteran commanders of the civil war, and Mu Shang, son of Mu Ying, a great general and adoptive son of the late Hong Wu. The campaign would involve a pincer attack from both Guangxi, which would go over the border, and from Yunnan, Mu Shang's domain, down the Red River. Although Zhu Nang died before the invasion was launched, the operation was carried out as planned. Zhang Fu crossed into Hou lands, swiftly capturing some territory on the 19th of November, as Mu Shang invaded from the west. The forces joined up at Dabang in January 1407, where they triumphed over the Hou forces after a two-day battle, during which invaluable Ming gunpowder weapons sent the Vietnamese war elephants into panic. Gaining victory after victory, the Ming forces spread propaganda denouncing Hou Guili as an illegitimate tyrant. Overwhelmed, the desperate ruler, losing both military ground and popular support, resorted to burning down his own palaces in Tanhua, and fled south by ship in early June. However, his escape attempt was short-lived, as he and his relatives were captured a few days later, and brought to Nanjing. After their arrival and interrogation by Yongle himself on the 5th of October, the usurper family was imprisoned and disappeared from records. The campaign in northern Vietnam was a resounding victory, but Yongle would make a critical mistake. With no rulers officially installed, and Ming troops stationed throughout the region, General Zhang Fu and several officials proposed to annex the entire state into the Ming Empire. The region had already been part of China several times in history, such as during the Han and Tang dynasties. Yongle eagerly integrated the state into China as Xiaozhu province. Thus began the fourth era of northern domination for the Vietnamese, and for the Ming, a period of constant turmoil and rebellions by the enraged population. During the invasion of Vietnam, many local men were captured and castrated to serve as eunuchs in China. One of these, a talented youth named Yuan An, or Ruan An, would soon play a crucial role as an architect in Yongle's next ambitious project, the Forbidden City of Beijing. The emperor intended to construct a palace of unprecedented splendour in his original fief, both showcasing the Ming dynasty's power and emphasising the importance of Beijing within the empire, which would soon become the strategic base for several future campaigns against the Mongols. For the astounding project, officials were dispatched throughout the empire in August 1406 to assemble an immense workforce and construction materials. Men were recruited nationwide, vast forests felled, and innumerable bricks fired to build what would soon become the symbol of Chinese imperial authority. Plans were soon laid out by chief architect Khoi Hsiang, assisted by Tsai Hsin, Lu Hsiang, and Vietnamese eunuch Yuan An. The immense rectangular complex would stretch 178 acres, or 720,000 square metres, from north to south, enclosed by huge red walls and a wide surrounding moat. A central path, symbolising power and divinity, would traverse the complex, with the most important buildings aligned along it. The Forbidden City's layout would be perfectly symmetrical, with structures on either side harmoniously mirrored. A southern section, the outer court, would be dedicated for ceremonies and state affairs, while the northern inner court would be reserved for imperial residence and leisure. Respecting feng shui, the artificial Jingshan hill would be erected to the north, providing protection from the wind, while a river would be dug to the south, featuring five bridges. The central bridge, reserved for the emperor alone, was flanked by two others for the imperial family, while anyone else would have to take the two outer bridges. Buildings would be adorned with golden yellow roof tiles, reserved for imperial structures, creating a sea of gold in the heart of Beijing, radiating imperial splendour. Every element of this city within a city, from the general layout to the smallest detail, was planned to showcase imperial authority and cosmic harmony. Few officials would ever have the opportunity to set foot in it, let alone access deeper compounds. Thus, it would eventually gain the name Forbidden City. Although construction began around late 1406, the project would initially stagnate for about a decade. The imperial court would soon find itself in mourning. In August 1407, Empress Xu, Yongle's consort, died at the age of 45. She had been an important ally to the emperor, actively supporting him during the Jingnan campaign. A devout Buddhist, Empress Xu diligently upheld rituals, but also strictly followed the Confucian moral standards of her position. Highly educated, she authored several texts herself, for one of which her three sons wrote postscripts on the occasion of her passing. Religion and philosophy were not subjects neglected by the emperor either. Yongle showed a balanced support for the three teachings, Confucianism, Buddhism and Daoism, that shaped Chinese thought. For example, he would patronise and personally write several texts such as the Shangxue Xinfa, or the Heart Method of Sacred Learning, in 1409. But Yongle's inclination towards religion would extend further. He would use Buddhism as a tool for population control. Aiming to integrate ethnic minorities into Chinese culture, the emperor sponsored their conversion to Buddhism, such as in the region of southern Sichuan, soon to become its own Guizhou province, where a religious office was established in 1406. Simultaneously, he repeatedly restricted young Han Chinese men from becoming monks, evidently so that they would remain within the labour force. In 1407, Yongle even invited the fifth Karmapa Lama, an important Tibetan Buddhist figurehead, to the court, as his father had invited the third. Back in the bustling Nanjing shipyards, Admiral Zheng He was ready to lead the second grand voyage of the Treasure Fleet. Yongle ordered its departure in October 1407, entrusting the eunuch to deepen diplomatic ties with nations previously visited, such as in Java and India. Barely a year after, in January 1409, while Zheng He was still at sea, the emperor would order for the third treasure voyage to be prepared. The admiral, back in China that summer, would immediately re-embark in October for this third expedition. In a fascinating historical event, it would see him invade Sri Lanka and overthrow a troublesome local king. The admiral would replace him with a more convenient ruler, before returning to the empire in the summer of 1411. While the second and third voyages had not extended farther than the first, they significantly enhanced the Ming display of authority and influence in Asia. Despite years on the throne, Yongle was still a warrior at heart. Echoing his first military expeditions as a young prince, the emperor would soon return to Mongolia to lead his troops in battle. Since his accession, he had incorporated large numbers of captured or surrendered Mongol warriors and civilians into the empire's armies and settlements. Yongle intended to transform them from perceived barbarians and former masters of China to integrated subjects of the Ming. In this aim, he had ordered that Mongol warriors serving the Ming be given Chinese names and wear Chinese clothing in 1403. However, beyond the borders, the remnants of the fallen Yuan dynasty, now a loose confederation of warrior tribes, remained a fierce enemy of China. Among these, the Oirats had particularly risen to prominence. In 1408 or 1409, their chief Mahmud sent a tribute mission to the Ming court, even offering to return the imperial seals taken during the Yuan dynasty's collapse. Although the Ming had already created new seals, the gesture was well received and the Oirats were recognized as vassals. However, they were just one faction within the fractured Mongols. Bunyashri, the nominal Yuan leader and heir to Chinggis Khan, had no intention of submitting to the Ming. Sensing upcoming trouble, Yongle relocated to Beijing in February 1409, where the staggering construction of the Forbidden City was still underway, and dispatched an emissary to demand Bunyashri's submission. The Mongol leader's response would be immediate and brutal. The unfortunate diplomat was put to death. There could be no toleration of such an action. It was time to assemble the armies. In August, Yongle entrusted General Qiu Fu with leading a punitive campaign against Bunyashri. Confidently venturing into Mongolia, the Ming commander was however ambushed and killed, and his forces decimated. This humiliating defeat gave the emperor the justification he was aching for. Yongle would trade the throne for the saddle and personally lead the next campaign. After months of preparation and support requested from the vassal Chosun dynasty of Korea, Yongle departed from Beijing at the head of an estimated 100,000 men in mid-March 1410 to invade Mongolia. After three months of tiring marching, the Ming armies had reached the Heilian River, where they finally found Bunyashri. In the decisive clash, the Ming forces crushed the northern Yuan's troops, but their leader was able to narrowly escape. However, the eastern Mongols had another asset. In July, a counter-attack led by General Arugthai fell on the unprepared Ming, but Yongle managed to overpower the assailants, chasing them for several days. By August, the emperor proudly declared victory as the Ming expeditionary force triumphantly began the return to Beijing. The first of Yongle's five campaigns against the Mongols was victoriously concluded. In its aftermath, Arugthai submitted to the Ming, but events in Mongolia were not over. In 1412, Mahmud of the Oirats killed Bunyashri and installed the puppets on the northern Yuan throne. Growing increasingly ambitious, he then demanded rewards from the Ming and even announced he would repatriate Mongols who had settled within the The warlord went as far as executing a Ming hostage. An escalating threat, Mahmud had to be contained immediately. In February 1413, Yongle dispatched an envoy to reaffirm the warlord's submission and ensure the safe return of all Ming officials. The defiant Oirat leader however refused. When Arugthai warned that Mahmud was planning hostile action, Yongle prepared to saddle up once more. In his second campaign, launched in April 1414, Yongle brought along his favourite grandson, eldest son of the crown prince, the 15-year-old Zhu Zhanji, who would one day rule the Ming empire himself as the Xuanda Emperor. Within two months, the Ming armies were once again deep into Mongolia. The first major engagement of the campaign took place at the Tula river in June. Despite being outnumbered, the Ming devastated the Oirat cavalry with their state-of-the-art heavy artillery, achieving a resounding victory despite many casualties. While Oirat detachment would attempt to harass the Ming armies with little success, Mahmud fled from the Chinese forces. By mid-August, Yongle claimed victory and led his armies back to Beijing. Despite the heavy losses sustained, lavish celebrations were organised for this second victory. Recognising the futility of a prolonged war with the Ming, Mahmud returned to diplomacy. As demanded, he conceded to release Chinese hostages and began sending tribute horses to the imperial court. Yongle had triumphed once more. Mongolia was under check. However, as time would prove, the emperor was not done with the Mongols just yet. The Mongols were just one of many peoples living north of the Ming dynasty. Yongle's ambition extended to Mongolia's east, Manchuria. The region was home to the Jurchen people, who lived in semi-nomadic tribes, the Haixi, Jianzhou and Woujurchen. To expand Ming influence and secure the borders, Yongle offered gifts and titles to neighbouring Jurchen chieftains in exchange for their submission and military cooperation. But the immediate border was just the beginning of his plans. After obtaining the nominal submission of many father Jurchen clans, Yongle established the Norgan Regional Military Commission, integrating Manchuria into the administrative structure of the Ming empire in 1409. That same year, he placed his trust in a eunuch from the Haixi tribe, Yi Shihua, who had slowly risen to prominence after being captured and castrated during local Ming operations around 1395. Yi Shihua was ordered to return to Manchuria, sail down the Amur river and strengthen ties with local chieftains. In 1411, the eunuch commander departed at the head of a great fleet of 25 ships carrying a thousand soldiers and officers, diligently carrying out his task. Two years later, he led another expedition to sway the Jurchen away from the eastern Mongols and hold them on the Ming influence by offering gifts and titles. Yi Shihua may have even travelled as far as Sakhalin island, integrating local chieftains. As was the case in the region of southern Sichuan province, which was turned into Guizhou province in 1413, significant efforts were made to convert tribes in Manchuria, such as the Orochen, to Buddhism. In Norgan, the Yongning temple was established, hosting a large stone stele erected the following year, which chronicled Yi Shihua's expedition and praised the Yongle emperor in Chinese, Jurchen, Mongolian and Tibetan. A Buddhist office was additionally founded in the region in 1417. Manchuria was under Ming control. Zhu Di had reached the halfway point of his reign. The emperor had already accomplished remarkable feats on the cultural, military and diplomatic scene. The greatest literary encyclopedia had been compiled. Northern Vietnam had been annexed, Manchuria integrated, the Mongol factions like many other states made tributaries and diplomatic ties established with distant nations. Yet, Yongle's ambitions were far from exhausted. He would lead three more campaigns against the Mongols, order three additional voyages of the treasure fleet and, most significantly, complete the Forbidden City in Beijing, the grandest imperial palace complex in world history. But before this monumental achievement, Yongle would first have to oversee another formidable project, a complete restoration of the decrepit Grand Canal. Stay tuned for the third part of this documentary. Thank you for watching my video, I hope you enjoyed it. If so, please leave a like and subscribe to the channel. 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