EMPEROR XIANFENG DOCUMENTARY - THE SECOND OPIUM WAR

As the Qing Dynasty continued to decline after the First Opium War, the reigns of the crumbling empire were passed on to an 18-year-old prince who would become Emperor Xianfeng. His rule, that would see the rise of multitudes of peasant rebellions and the Second Opium War, would bring China from a tenuous position to the verge of collapse. In 1831, in an ever-weakening Qing Dynasty, the Daoguang Emperor, age 48, received news of the birth of his fourth son, Prince Yizhu. The young imperial child was born in the Old Summer Palace, a magnificent building symbolic of the Haiqing era, golden age of the dynasty. His mother, Noble Consul Quan, was a Manchu noblewoman, 26 younger than Emperor Daoguang. At the time, western interest in trade with China was constantly expanding. Oriental products such as tea and porcelain were in high demand in Europe and America. Additionally, though illegal and frowned upon by many in both China and the West, the extremely lucrative trade of opium was getting stronger and stronger. In parallel, the Qing Dynasty was locked in its tradition. Emperor Daoguang, like his predecessors, perceived their culture as inherently superior to that of foreign nations that were considered barbarian cultures. It was in this spirit that Yizhu was educated and grew up in the imperial capital of Beijing. As all princes of the Qing Dynasty, Yizhu would soon be instructed in Chinese classics. At about 5 years old, the child prince started being tutored by a prominent scholar, Du Shaotian. Rapidly, the small prince showed promising literary skills. His childhood would however be shaken by a tragic event. In 1840, as he was 8 years old, his mother died prematurely at 31 years old. This event probably tremendously affected the young boy. In a generous gesture, another one of Daoguang's wives, Noble Consort Jing, decided to take Yizhu in and foster him. Under her care, he would grow close to her son, his half-brother, Prince Yixin. The two children would often play together, study together and practice lance and swords with each other. As Yizhu was slowly growing up in the sumptuous palaces of the Qing Dynasty, the nation slowly fell in ruins. His father, Emperor Daoguang and his officials failed to handle the increasing issue of the trade of opium, which was ruining the dynasty's economy. The First Opium War, which broke out in 1839, was handled even worse. If you're curious, I've covered the course of the war in a separate video, links in the description below. As the Qing imperial court considered the British and other foreigners barbarians, they failed to understand the might of western technology that had developed an industrialized military force. The war was a disaster for China, ending with the Treaty of Nanking in 1842, first of many so-called unequal treaties. In consequence, the island of Hong Kong was ceded to Britain, the Qing Dynasty's treasury was drained and foreign influence in the nation began to develop in five treaty ports forcibly opened. However, most officials and Daoguang himself carried on with the obsolete systems of the Qing Dynasty that all stayed unreformed. In his teenage years, Prince Yizhu reportedly developed excellent literary skills that surpassed those of his brothers, which probably convinced Emperor Daoguang to secretly select him as a successor in 1846. It would however not be long until the succession actually took place. In February 1850, Emperor Daoguang died at 67 years old, leaving a nation on the verge of civil war. Two weeks later, the unready 18-year-old Yizhu was propelled to the head of the Qing Dynasty, while his half-brother Yixin, who he had grown up with, became prince of first rank. The new emperor, who took the ruling name of Xianfeng, had however inherited the nation in the worst state it had ever been. The treasury was utterly empty and the whole economy close to collapse, as silver was flowing out of the country while opium was flowing in. Corruption had by now developed throughout the entire empire. Most urgently, civil unrest was widespread, mainly in the south of China, where destitute civilians felt abandoned by the Qing authorities. Emperor Xianfeng was however not ready to lead an empire. He had no experiences in state affairs and possibly little motivation as well. Facing the current issues through the lens of his Confucian education, the emperor believed the problems of the Qing Dynasty were due to corrupt morals. In his opinion, orthodox Confucian values had to be reaffirmed through the empire. Working on a previous edict emphasising Confucian rules, written by Emperor Kangxi over a century ago called the Sacred Edict, Xianfeng added several new sections. Baptised Sacred Edict with Amplified Instruction, it was printed and distributed through the empire. Un-Confucian morals were however the least important issue the nation had to face. A significant proportion of the population had completely lost faith in the dynasty. In Canton, a young man of Hakka descent failed several consecutive times at the imperial examination system, a necessary test for any person aspiring to enter the Mandarin hierarchy. These failures fuelled his rage against the dynasty. This young man, Hong Xiuquan, came to embrace Christianity, a faith preached by Western missionaries in the five treaty ports opened since the First Opium War. Through delirious visions, Hong Xiuquan started to believe he was the son of God, a younger brother to Jesus Christ. His reformed view of the Christian faith was promptly compiled into the Taiping Bible, meaning Bible of the Great Peace. Rapidly, he found followers who grouped together into the God-worshipping society. The movement found a strong support as many people flocked to his vision. They would eventually be called the Taipings. The movement grew into an uprising in Guangxi province and what was an insurgency turned into the Taiping Rebellion. Far from understanding the mechanics of modern warfare and administration, Emperor Xianfeng and his court believed the issue would be promptly resolved. The emperor personally reviewed archer troops in Beijing, allocated 1 million tales of silver for the campaign and dispatched forces to quell the In reality, the Qing dynasty's military composed of the Han Chinese-based Green Standard Army and the elite Eight Banners was in a terrible state. As decades passed after the early conquests of the dynasty, the Qing army had completely decayed and its soldiers were no longer fit for their fighting duty. Therefore, the Taiping rebels were able to crush the dynasty's forces to the general surprise of the imperial court. They then proclaimed the founding of the Taiping heavenly kingdom. In addition, another revolt in Henan province, the Nian Rebellion broke out soon after. Although its members were not as coordinated and organized as the Taiping rebels, being mainly bandits and rogues, they were much closer to Beijing and as such a significant threat too. Emperor Xianfeng, too young and of no prior experience to state affairs, was bewildered and unsure on how to handle these issues. He asked prominent officials for counsel who advised him to dispatch the distinguished Mongol general Saishang to crush the Taipings. Just as previously, the Qing general was decisively defeated and the Taiping's influence significantly developed. As the court desperately kept sending officers and soldiers, each wave of Qing forces was crushed one after the other. Internal problems were worrying enough for the Qing dynasty. Tensions would however break out externally as well. The neighboring Russian empire constantly aimed to expand its borders. With views of integrating Mongolia, the Russians dispatched troops to Buryatia. Uneasy, Xianfeng ordered a general in Heilongjiang province and troops to be dispatched to Mongolia in garrison. In parallel, officers and soldiers of the Eight Banners and Green Standard armies were also sent south to fight the Taipings. This new expedition was nonetheless decisively defeated. By 1853, the Taipings even captured and secured the city of Nanjing, most important city of southern China, making it their capital. The rebels soon acquired modern weapons sold to them by western traders, greatly overpowering the Qing armies that were practically unreformed since the 17th century, fighting with spears, swords, bows and muskets. Contrarily to the First Opium War, this devastating civil war could not be settled with a peace treaty. The rebels, aiming to overthrow the Qing dynasty, would not stop until they were crushed or victorious. Several court officials came to understand that if the military was not reorganized, the dynasty would certainly collapse. Therefore, exceptional measures had to be taken. Emperor Xianfeng, convinced, tasked a second-grade official named Zeng Guofan with a special mission. Zeng Guofan, who was assisting the governor of Hunan province, where the Taipings were offering greater resistance, was ordered to create a new This militia would later become the Xiang Army and would count 17,000 men. The Xiang Army was designed to function differently than usual. Its soldiers were loyal to their general and the general led his soldiers. There would be no transfer of troops or of commanding officer, as was customary until then. In time, this new type of military forces would prove far more effective and would spread throughout the provinces. For the moment though, the Taiping Kingdom, main threat to the empire, kept developing. In addition, one of many anti-Qing secret societies, called the Small Sword Society, rebelled and seized Shanghai. After the First Opium War, the vicinity of Shanghai had been reorganized. Indeed, the French, British and American nations obtained concessions around the old city, where administration and law were controlled by each respective nation. After the Small Sword Society attacked the old city, wealthy inhabitants and merchants took refuge in the French and British concessions of the town. Meanwhile, the Taiping's ambition grew even stronger. They set a goal of capturing the imperial capital of Beijing, overthrowing the Qing dynasty. A Taiping military expedition subsequently marched north with the intent of capturing the city. The imperial court, learning news of this force, panicked. Big cities such as Nanjing had already fallen and Deng Guofan's Xiang army was not ready to fight yet. Though unlikely, it was not impossible for Beijing to fall as well. Xiang Feng and his court desperately sent out elite forces on counterattacks. Eventually, the Taiping's northern expedition was defeated. For now, the imperial capital was safe, but the dynasty had narrowly avoided a catastrophe. This event served as a wake-up call for many officials, who stopped believing in an erroneous view of an unshakable power of the Qing dynasty. Now, many realized the nation could very well collapse. That same year, the treasury was so empty that Emperor Xiang Feng forced overtly corrupt officials to give up part of their fortune to be able to pay the salaries of officials, a practice that would continue in the future. The whole economy itself was in tatters. As it had been the case for the last 60 years or so, silver, the basis of the Qing economy, was flowing out of the nation's reserves in western trading ships or in corrupt officials' pockets. Furthermore, copper used for coins was also running low. Soldiers in the army were subsequently paid as much as 15 months late and a significant proportion of the troops began deserting. Risking economic and military collapse, Xiang Feng finally gave permission to issue paper money for the first time since the transition between the Ming and the Qing dynasties. This new system offered much-needed relief to the economy. Exhausted and stressed by the affairs of the court, Emperor Xiang Feng started to regularly withdraw to the Old Summer Palace to rest and unwind, allowing trusted officials to administer many state issues. By 1854, Deng Guofan's Xiang army was ready to begin fighting the Taipings. They would gradually prove successful. Although things seemed to get better for the dynasty, optimism in the court would soon be crushed once more. In Guangdong province, a new rebellion of Han Chinese insurgents of the Tiandihui or Heaven and Earth Society broke out. This was the Red Turban Revolt. The Red Turbans captured several counties and besieged Canton but were repelled there. They would establish the following year the Kingdom of Dachang and the rebellion would keep going for several more years. As if events were not distressing enough for Xiang Feng and his court, the Miao people of Guizhou province rose up in arms against the Qing administration in their own rebellion. At the same time, the Nian rebellion was still going on and had even strengthened. Its leader Zhang Lexing organised groups of rebels and bandits into an army inspired by the Eight Banners. In 1856, he claimed the Mandate of Heaven and bestowed himself with the title of Great Han Lord. Zhang Lexing would soon ally with the Taiping rebels, increasing the Qing dynasty's worries. As the nation was in chaos, plagued by food shortages and poverty, as well as widespread unrest and rebellions and increasing western influence, Han Chinese nationalisms fight. For many in the population, it was time for China to be controlled by the Han Chinese. In 1856, a French Catholic missionary, Auguste Chabdelaine was arrested. He was illegally preaching in Guangxi province since Christianity was only authorised in the five treaty ports that had been opened after the First Opium War. As he refused to pay bribes to be released, he was condemned to death by the local magistrate and reportedly died of ill treatment and beatings before his body was decapitated. This outraged the French authorities. They soon got together with the British who had also endured the murder and harassment of several British subjects in China by locals. Tensions spiked between these two western powers and the Qing dynasty. On the 26th of April, an event would bring comfort to the distressed emperor. His first son, named Zaichen, was born. Concubine Yi of the fifth rank, the mother of the boy, was promoted as consort Yi of the fourth rank. She would play a pivotal role later in history. In addition, internal conflicts within the Taiping rebels also somewhat offered relief to the Qing dynasty. However, a whole new issue would irreversibly shake the nation and eventually force the Qing dynasty into movements of reform. A British controlled trading ship, the Arrow, docked in Canton. As it had in the past been a pirate ship, Canton authorities boarded the Arrow and arrested and jailed most of its Chinese crew, suspecting the vessel was still active in piracy. The British captain of the ship then reported the events to British authorities, stating he had also seen the Qing officials remove and put down the flag. The British authorities grew tired of what they perceived was Chinese perfidy. They dispatched diplomats to talk with the Qing officials in Canton. After negotiations, the viceroy of Liangguang, Ye Mingchun, conceded to release several of the captured sailors, but not all of the crew. As he firmly refused any further British demands to release the men, negotiations turned sour. Feeling frustrated and disrespected, the British prepared for a military intervention. The French soon joined in alongside the British, using the murder of missionary Auguste Chabdelaine as justification for war. The Second Opium War was on the verge of beginning. During the next weeks, the two European powers would muster their forces at home. In parallel, the imperial court would have to face yet another issue. The Hui Muslims of Yunnan province, disgusted by the murder of in their community by local officials, in addition to general ill-treatment, rose up in arms in the Pantai Rebellion. At that moment, the Qing faced the Taiping, Nian, Red Turban, Miao and Pantai rebellions while simultaneously being at war with the French and British empires, all of which were the practically empty treasury. Despite the staggering circumstances, Xianfeng was fairly confident that order would be brought back to the Celestial Empire. Learning from the First Opium War, court officials understood that this new conflict with Britain and France would be fought only on the coastline, as the western powers' advantage was mostly the navy and marines. The imperial court therefore focused the Qing Dynasty's land forces on repressing the many rebellions, now mainly relying on local militias rather than national armies, a strategy which proved much more effective. Against the Taiping rebels in Hunan province, Zeng Guofan's Xiang army proved efficient. His apprentice, Li Hongzhang, also distinguished himself. Soon, as the western powers had assembled their forces, the Second Opium War effectively began. Canton was bombarded by the British, who rapidly defeated the Qing's garrison and secured all administrative and strategic buildings in the town. The Americans, although not in the war, were not far behind the British and raised their flag on vice for Ye Mingchun's mansion. Ye Mingchun himself was captured by the British and sent to Calcutta in India, where he soon died of illness or suicide by starvation. The Franco-British forces then sailed up to the imperial domain and attacked the Daguo forts near Tianjin on the Yellow Sea coast, promptly capturing them. Some elements of the court were reminded by these events of the disastrous First Opium War. They subsequently urged the emperor to settle the conflict with diplomacy rather than fight Britain and France. Xian Feng was persuaded by them. Seeking to resolve the conflict, he gave permission for peace talks. Court official Qi Ying, who had negotiated the Treaty of Nanking, settling the First Opium War, would lead the negotiations. In 1858, the Treaties of Tianjin were signed by Qing officials on one side and France, Britain and the United States on the other, the latter having taken opportunity to obtain privileges. The terms of the Tianjin treaties forced the opening of additional trading ports, the legalisation of Christianity throughout the empire and the establishment of diplomatic bodies in Beijing, which would become the Legations Quarter. The Russian Empire had also jumped on the occasion to expand its borders and negotiated the Treaty of Aigun that ceded the northern part of Manchuria to the Russian Empire. With these treaties, Qi Ying believed he had done well as China would have external peace. However, upon learning of the terms discussed, Emperor Xian Feng was outraged. He considered that foreign diplomatic bodies negotiating directly and on equal grounds with himself, the son of heaven, was a personal offence. Ceding parts of Manchuria, the heartland of Manchu culture to which the Qing emperors belonged to, was also unacceptable. Consequently, the imperial court refused to ratify the treaties of Tianjin and Aigun, which would only lead to the resumption of hostilities. Much like his predecessor Daoguang, Xian Feng considered the foreigners barbarians while viewing the Qing Empire as supreme civilisation of the world. However, contrarily to Daoguang, Xian Feng would be the first to understand the true extent of the might and determination of these western empires. In 1859, as the Qing dynasty fought against the numerous peasant rebellions ongoing in the south of the country, a group of the new British expeditionary force attacked the Daogu force as they had done so alongside the French forces a year earlier. In a surprise turn of events, they were this time repelled by a local general, a Mongol official named Sengger Rinchen. This general, who traced his ancestry back to Genghis Khan, had made careful preparations, reinforcing the force with cannons and men. This, combined with a mediocre British strategy, led to a complete failure in the battle. A high-ranking British officer was even wounded. Following this victory, Emperor Xian Feng was reassured and probably comforted in his idea that the Qing dynasty could not fall, as the British withdrew. However, just a year after, in 1860, they returned, reinforced by French expeditionary forces. Together, they rapidly captured the Daogu forts, opening up the road to Beijing. Sengger Rinchen, the local Qing general, received a personal letter from Xian Feng. The foundation of the empire is located here in the capital, not at the ports. Where ports lost, you would withdraw so as to defend Tianjin and Tongzhou. You must not linger on the cannon fortifications. This is the comprehensive strategy. I write in great distress, you must heed my orders. It was time for the Qing forces to withdraw. Believing he stood no chance at Tianjin, Sengger Rinchen retreated to Tongzhou, allowing the Franco-British forces to take the city without fighting. They then rested there for several days. While the Western army was being resupplied, a delegation of their diplomats was dispatched ahead of the forces to Tongzhou to hold talks with the Qing officials. Upon arriving though, they were taken captive by Sengger Rinchen, brought to Beijing, imprisoned and tortured. Consequently, the Franco-British forces marched on. In Tongzhou, they clashed with Sengger Rinchen's tens of thousands of soldiers and his elite Mongol cavalry. In this battle, they decisively crushed them with their far superior weapons, suffering virtually no losses. This event was a turning point for the war. Upon learning that there were no defences left between the advancing foreign army and Beijing, Emperor Xianfeng was devastated. He who believed the empire built by his forefathers was the strongest and most illustrious of the world, had to face the obvious. The Qing dynasty had been decisively defeated. The same day, alongside his family, including his son Zaichun and noble consort Yi, Zaichun's mother, he fled to the Chongde mountain resort, hunting lodge of the emperors during the Haiqing era. Chongde would be a safe spot, a city hosting many temples built by Emperor Qianlong, over 200 kilometres northeast of Beijing. Upon escaping the imperial capital, Xianfeng entrusted his half-brother Yixin, now named Prince Gong, to deal with the British and the French, who by now were arriving at the gates of Beijing. As a condition to negotiate peace, the British demanded the release of the captured delegation kidnapped in Tongzhou. In parallel, Emperor Xianfeng from the Chongde mountain resort ordered their execution. Stuck in the middle, Yixin compromised, refusing to release them while also refusing to execute them. The Franco-British forces did not intend to raze Beijing to the ground. However, to intimidate the officials as well as take valuable war prizes, they decided to loot the old summer palace, where Xianfeng and several previous emperors had been born. They then set up their engineers to blow up the imperial capital's walls in the prospects of capturing it. Resigned and out of resources, Yixin offered a truce and opened the gates of Beijing. The captured delegation was released, although several members had died of ill-treatment. In retaliation, the allied army burned down the old summer palace entirely, destroying a huge monument of the Haiqing era. After several days of talks, Yixin conceded with the French and British demands, signing the convention of Peking in 1860, ending the Second Opium War. It confirmed the previous treaties of Tianjin and Aigun, with additional terms in both cases. New treaty ports were opened across the empire. A legation or embassy quarter was established in Beijing for further diplomacy between the Qing and Western powers. The territory of Kowloon, a peninsula on the mainland next to Hong Kong island, was ceded to Britain, expanding the crown colony of Hong Kong. The French secured the return of confiscated Christian properties to the church in China, as well as the legalization of Christianity throughout the empire. Russia had also participated in the talks. The previous treaty of Aigun in 1858 ceded the north of Manchuria to the Russian empire. Now, the eastern coast was also ceded in the convention of Peking. The core territory of the early Qing dynasty, obtained in previous wars by the founder of the dynasty, Huangtaiji, and his grandson, the famous emperor Kangxi, had been lost. With the convention of Peking, all conflicts with the foreign powers were settled. Although peace had returned to Beijing and its surroundings, Emperor Xianfeng refused to return to the capital. Devastated by the crushing defeat the Qing dynasty had just suffered, he preferred to stay in Chengde out of despair and shame. Overwhelmed, he now gave up entirely on state affairs, delegating them all to court officials. Now, the emperor spent his time in a lifestyle of overindulgence in alcohol and sex, and was even rumored to have begun smoking opium, though this cannot be proven. Unsurprisingly, his health promptly plummeted. Falling deeply ill several weeks later, he knew he would not live much longer, probably not wishing to anyway. Since his eldest son Zaiqun was only five years old, the throne could not pass on to him as such. Therefore, Xianfeng summoned important officials of the court to the Chengde mountain resort, led by Manchu nobleman Su Xun, to discuss a regency system. Eight men, including Su Xun, were subsequently appointed as regents for his son Zaiqun, until he would grow up to majority. In reality, no future Qing emperors would ever reign independently. On the 22nd of August 1861, Xianfeng died at 30 years old. His reign was absolutely disastrous, leaving a Qing dynasty in tatters. Although the war with the western powers had been put to an end, it caused a huge loss of territory and prestige for the dynasty, and it ended its isolationism. External conflicts were settled, but the Taiping, Nian, Red Turban, Miao and Pantai rebellion was still ravaging the country. Xianfeng's five-year-old son, Zaiqun, was crowned as Emperor Tongzhi. Power was officially in the hands of the eight regents, supposed to rule until the new emperor's majority. If they continued enforcing the old ways of the dynasty, the Qing empire would undoubtedly collapse. However, child emperor Tongzhi's mother, noble consort Yi, and a few select allies were determined not to let the regents assume power.