Etruscans: History and Culture (Documentary)

The Etruscan civilization was one of the first great cultures of the Italian peninsula. The people of Etruria built great cities, gathered vast amounts of wealth and developed a sophisticated cultural system that largely influenced the Romans. Today we will take a look on the impressive history of the Etruscans and how they managed to retain a thriving culture The earliest form of the Etruscan civilization is known as the Villanovan culture which developed around the late 10th century BC making it the earliest Iron Age culture in the Italian peninsula. The Villanovan period was one of many changes. The people largely abandoned the numerous Bronze Age villages and gathered in a few large settlements that were strategically located They also started a large-scale exploitation of the land's resources. Etruria was already a fertile land but iron tools and new farming techniques resulted in a massive agricultural growth. Additionally, mineral resources such as iron, gold, copper and tin were extracted on a large scale. Not much is known today about the Villanovan people. According to archaeological findings, they lived in huts made of wattle and daub walls and thatched roofs. These were mostly circular but could have other shapes too. In the late Villanovan period many huts were decorated with geometrical motifs. Outside of every major settlement was a necropolis from which many biconical urns were excavated since cremation was the main burial custom during that period. Along with the urns, many other items were found such as jewelry, armor and weapons. At around 750 BC, the Villanovan period would end and the Etruscan proper culture would form. At the same time, the Phoenicians and the Greeks had began establishing colonies around the Mediterranean and started trading with the Etruscans mainly because of the rich mineral resources of Etruria. During the next 50 years, the trade was largely expanded with the Etruscans exporting goods to the Phoenicians, the Greeks and the developing cultures to their north. Trade deals were also established between the major Etruscan settlements. Such a large scale of trade resulted in the gathering of great amounts of wealth in Etruria which led to the rapid urbanization of the area. The Etruscan settlements that had been established during the Villanovan period were now reconstructed as the inhabitants began to build strong fortification walls, stone paved roads, water infrastructure, large houses and temples. The settlement slowly transformed into independent city-states which had control over the surrounding area. Among the largest of these city-states were Tarquinia, Vey and Chervetri. Many of the cities had access to the sea through the rivers and controlled either large agricultural areas or a good number of rich minerals. This helped them become largely independent and self-sufficient although each city-state developed differently. Some of them also established satellite settlements like the city of Piegi which was established as a trading outpost but in time grew very wealthy and became semi-independent. The accumulation of wealth and the competition for the area's fertile lands resulted into small skirmishes between some of the Etruscan cities. Regarding the governmental system of the city-states, it seems that most of them were ruled by a king but there were also other offices of power within that system like the chief magistrate of the city. It is evident that in the early years of the Etruscan history an aristocratic class of powerful families and clans arose, the members of which would either hold important political positions or influence those in power. Around the 5th century BC, oligarchy became the prevailing type of government. Of course, the governmental institution and its changes over the course of time could be different for each city-state. As we mentioned the Etruscan city-states were independent and mostly self-sufficient but we do know that around the 7th century BC a loose alliance among the 12 greatest Etruscan cities was established. According to Roman historians, the 12 cities had an annual meeting in the sanctuary of Fanum Voltumne near the city of Volcini with 12 elected leaders representing their respective cities. It appears that this alliance had more of a religious and cultural role rather than a It is important to note that the expanding trading connections aside from wealth and impact on the socio-political structure also brought cultural changes for the Etruscans. The influence of the eastern mediterranean peoples on the Etruscan civilization was massive. Lasting from around 700 to 550 BC, this era is known today as the orientalizing period. During that time, the Etruscan alphabet was formed which was derived from the western greek alphabet. Thus, the Etruscans established a writing system which they retained until the decline of their culture. Their religion was greatly influenced too which is evident through the incorporation of greek and phoenician deities and mythical epics like the trojan war as well as the architecture of the temples. Many oriental based artworks were made during that period which the wealthy Etruscans proudly displayed as symbols of power since their style and forms originated from the wealthy east. Another major aspect that underwent change during that time was warfare. The Etruscans adopted the greek hoplite military system as well as the greek armor and weapons. Thus, the army of each city-state became more organized leading them to develop strong martial cultures. Aside from powerful land force, some of the city-states also developed a large navy. All these changes greatly enhanced the power of the Etruscan cities and before long their influence was spreading both to the north and the south. The northern cities expanded their territories creating new cities like the port of Pisa on the coast of the Meanwhile, the southern cities after failing to expand by force established their dominance through political and cultural influence mainly on the regions of Campania and Latium including the city of Rome where they established a line of kings who further developed the city. During this expansion, the trade extended even further with the Etruscans exporting goods to eastern Iberia, southern France, the Gallic lands in the north, mainland Greece, Egypt, their Latin neighbors, the Greek and Phoenician colonies and Carthage which by now had become a powerful independent city. Yet after this grand expansion, many problems began to rise and the Etruscans slowly entered a period of instability and decline. During the early 6th century BC, the increasing presence of the Greeks and Carthaginians in the western Mediterranean gave rise to tensions between the two as they contested for both the control of the sea trade routes and the establishment of new colonies. The Etruscans after gaining so much power in both land and sea and wishing to maintain the trade routes they had established eventually were involved in the conflict. Throughout the 6th and early 5th century BC, the Etruscans occasionally allying with the Carthaginians and at times with southern Italic tribes led a number of attacks against the Greeks. Most of these were unsuccessful though and eventually the Greeks led by the city-state of Syracuse launched a series of raids on the Etruscan coastline, sacking and destroying most of the Etruscan ports. This was a serious blow to the power and economy of most Etruscan city-states as most of the sea trade routes on the Tyrrhenian sea were not accessible anymore. On top of that, the Etruscan influence in the regions of Latium and Campania largely diminished. As a result, the Etruscans turned their focus inland and on the Adriatic sea while the Greeks and Carthaginians would continue to fight each other in the western Mediterranean sea for the next two centuries. As much destructive as that was for the Etruscans, the worst was yet to come. In the north, a new threat had appeared for throughout the 6th and 5th century BC, a great number of Gauls had crossed the Alps, settling around the Po valley. During the late 5th and early 4th century BC, the Gallic tribes would lead a series of attacks to their south, focusing on the Etruscan cities. Although the Etruscans managed to haul them off, their economy was greatly affected as the trade routes to the north were disrupted, further reducing the power of the city-states. Meanwhile in the south, the city of Rome was becoming more powerful by the day. By 509 BC, the Romans had ousted their last king and had declared the foundation of the republic. Throughout the 5th century BC, Rome fought various battles with its neighboring tribes which had formed a union called the Latin League. After years of conflict, the Romans overcame them and slowly assimilated them into the republic. By the late 5th century BC, the power of Rome had already grown substantially. In 406 BC, the Romans declared war on the Etruscan city of Veii, which at that time was very wealthy and powerful. After 10 years of brutal battles, Veii was sacked and destroyed in 396 BC. During the 4th and 3rd century BC, Rome was on a constant cycle of war with its enemies, including the Gauls and the Sumnites, but the conquest of Etruria would continue nonetheless. Through a series of conquests and annexations, stalemates and trade deals, suppression of revolts and establishment of colonies, the Romans expanded their territory and brought all the Etruscans under their rule in the span of a century, with the last Etruscan city, Volsini, falling in 264 BC. After the conquest, some Etruscan cities would continue to be semi-independent, with some of them revolting repeatedly. But the continuous land redistribution, the new Roman roads which disrupted the connections between the Etruscan settlements and the slow but steady Romanization of the people would ultimately result to the fading of the Etruscan culture, which during the time of the Roman Empire was but an echo of the past. Today, there are various theories about the mysterious origin of the Etruscan people. Judging from the surviving ancient texts, it seems that only a handful of ancient Greek historians had something to say on the matter. By and large, two opposing theories can be drawn from the Greek texts. The first one was proposed by Herodotus who claimed that the Etruscans were once the same people as the Lydians of Asia Minor. Herodotus mentions that during the late Bronze Age, when the Lydian cities were plagued by famine, they decided to send a part of their population away. Those that were chosen to leave sailed off Anatolia's coast and established themselves in the Italian peninsula. The second theory was expressed by Dionysius of Halicarnassus who firmly believed that the Etruscans were native to central Italy and that their language, customs and governmental institutions did not resemble those of the Lydians or any other people of Anatolia. Aside from the ancient literary sources, there has been archaeological and genetic research on the Etruscan origins, though not in a large scale. The general conclusion that is drawn from these researchers mostly favours the theory of Dionysius as it is more probable that the Etruscans were indeed an indigenous people, at least as far back as the Neolithic period. The most important characteristic of the Etruscan language is that it was not Indo-European which made it very different from the language of the neighbouring cultures like the Greek, Latin and Celtic language. A writing system of the Etruscan language was established early on as around 700 BC Greek traders introduced the Western Greek alphabet to Etruria. While the Etruscans adopted the alphabet they made a few alterations forming their own writing system. They dismissed some of the Greek letters that were not used in their language and they added letters that were absent from the Western Greek writing system. Two inscriptions that include the whole Etruscan alphabet have survived. The first one is on an ivory tablet and the second is on a terracotta vase in the shape of a cockerel, both of which were made around the 7th century BC. Etruscan was mostly written from the right to the left but there were cases in which it would be written on alternate directions on each line. This happened mostly when the text was long. About 12 to 13 thousand inscriptions of Etruscan text survive. Some were engraved on stone or metal tablets, others were painted or inscribed on pottery while a few were carved on interior walls. The vast majority of them though are found on objects that were used as dedications and votive offerings. These contain extremely short inscriptions with many of them only mentioning a name either of a person or a deity. Some long texts have survived but these cannot be thoroughly comprehended as our knowledge of the Etruscan language is limited. According to later references the Etruscans had a fairly rich literature especially regarding religious calendars and as some evidence suggests limited literacy was probably common for both men and women. The Etruscan language would initially withstand the Roman conquest as many excavated inscriptions from the time of the Roman Republic show were the last surviving Etruscan text dating from the first century BC. After that time the Etruscan language was forgotten. At this point it is worth mentioning that the word Etruscan comes from the word Etrusci which was used by the Romans when referring to their northern neighbors but in their own language the Etruscans called themselves Racena. The Etruscan religion is often overlooked yet it was one of the most important and interesting aspects of the Etruscan culture. Initially the Etruscan deities were worshipped as shapeless spirits with elements of nature attributed to each one. Many shrines have been found around the countryside dating to the Villanovan and early Etruscan proper period. As we have mentioned during the Orientalizing period the Etruscans were highly influenced by the cultures of the east with Greek mythology playing a big role on the reshaping of the Etruscan religion. From then on the Etruscan deities were depicted in human form just like the Greek gods. The Etruscans would adopt many Greek deities into their own pantheon while also giving Greek-like names to their own gods. Some examples are the gods Aplu and Aritemi which are the equivalent of Apollo and Artemis. It should be noted though that in many cases the characteristics of these gods were different from their Greek counterparts. The Etruscans were also fascinated by the many epics and stories of the Greek mythology like the Trojan War or the Theban Cycle and they adopted many of the Greek heroes into their own culture such as Heracles whom they called Herkles. Depictions of the Etruscan gods and the Greek epics can be found in thousands of artworks including mirrors, carved marble stones and statues of bronze or terracotta. Although Greek mythology heavily influenced the Etruscans they retained many characteristics that made their religion unique. The Etruscan pantheon was comprised of many deities. Its chief god was Tinea who commanded the skies and used lightning bolts as a weapon similar to Zeus. Other deities of the Etruscan religion include Ouni the wife of Tinea who was the queen of the gods, Nathans the god of the sea and Usil the god of the sun. The religion of the Etruscans was very well organized. It seems that there was a great religious university in the city of Tarquinia where people studied in order to become members of an elite class of priests. These priests were in charge of arranging and overseeing all the important religious ceremonies while they could also occupy important governmental positions. The majority of them were men but there were also women in the ranks as women in the Etruscan society enjoyed more freedom than the contemporary Greek and Roman women. Religious education was needed because of the nature of worship which was quite formulaic with specific rules that one needed to follow. According to Roman sources the priests consulted a collection of religious texts called Etrusca Disciplina for their various practices. These texts covered a number of subjects such as the reading of omens, the prediction of future events and the rituals that had to be performed when founding a new settlement. The Etruscans were famous for their preoccupation with fate and destiny. In Rome there was an elite class of Etruscan priests that many politicians and senators consulted in order to learn about the future. These priests were either augurs or haraspices. The augurs would read and interpret omens by observing lightning strikes or bird flights while the haraspices would predict future events by consulting the liver of a sacrificed animal. As we mentioned initially the Etruscans practiced their religion at shrines but during the orientalizing period they began building large temples. These resembled their contemporary Greek structures but they had unique characteristics as they were made mostly of mud brick, had columns of the Tuscan order and usually had the sculpture of the temple's deity on top of the building instead of inside. Despite the construction of large temples the Etruscans retained the practice of shrine worship. These were built in the countryside near rivers and caves. Thousands of votive offerings have been found inside the temples and around the shrines. Objects of offering were also found in the graves of the necropolis. The large tombs were rarely made for individuals, they were almost always family based. This practice as well as the importance of one's family in the Etruscan culture may indicate that a type of ancestral worship was also practiced. A number of sarcophagi were found inside the richest tombs depicting the deceased while celebrating at a symposium like the sarcophagus of the spouses. While paintings were a recurrent decorative form in the Etruscan necropolis at least 180 have been found mostly depicting feasts and dances. Some of these display scenes from the underworld with demons and other mythological figures accompanying the dead to the afterlife. One of the most depicted is the female winged figure called Vanth who is seen carrying either a torch or a key. Charon, the Etruscan equivalent of the Greek Charon, the ferryman of Hades can also be found in Etruscan wall paintings and pottery. So far we have seen the many artworks that were in some way involved with religion but there was also quite a lot of non-religious art. Jewellery was a major part of the Etruscan art as various bracelets, earrings, rings, brooches and necklaces were found. The most distinct and unique art form though was the Buccaro type pottery which was a black burnished ceramic ware with a polished surface. The Etruscan potters used a special technique to achieve this colour and form which made these ceramics highly sought after all around the Mediterranean. Despite the fact that the Etruscans were conquered by Rome and their language and customs passed into history, the impact of the Etruscan culture on the Roman civilization should not be underestimated. One of the most important fields of influence was the religion. The Romans adopted many Etruscan gods and goddesses into their pantheon. Some of these were distinctly Etruscan but most had Greek origins hence the similarity between many of the Roman and Greek deities. Another very important field of influence was the language. The Latin alphabet of the Romans derived from the Etruscan alphabet and initially there were few differences between the two. Elements of the war-like aspects of the Etruscan culture were also adopted by the Romans including the military tactics and formations that they used in their early history and possibly the gladiatorial combats too. It should be noted that the last three kings of Rome that ruled from 616 to 509 BC were in fact Etruscans. According to Roman sources, the first Etruscan king in Rome brought along many architects, builders and scholars from the city of Tarquinia who exposed the Romans to the Etruscan culture. The Etruscan kings urbanized the settlement of Rome and drained the surrounding marshes in order to expand the city and create new fields for cultivation. While the Romans overthrew the last king in 509 BC, they continued to be influenced by their neighbors in the north even when they finally conquered all the Etruscan city-states. Although the Etruscan culture itself faded, some of its characteristics would carry on through the Roman culture which in turn would influence quite a large part of the ancient, medieval and modern world.