Units of Classical Antiquity: The Praetorian Guard (Roman Army)

The Praetorian Guard was a famous unit of the Roman Empire, whose reputation evokes mixed feelings of awe, fear, and mystery. In the popular imagination, they are often equated to modern forces such as the elite commandos of the SAS, or the Republican Guard Troops which have propped up dictators such as Saddam Hussein. Even in the historical realm, their role has been subject to doubt, with some in the past perceiving them as ceremonial units equipped with archaic armor designed only for show. So who were they? Special forces? Dictatorial Musclemen? Or Ceremonial Relics? Let's find out. The Cohorus Praetoria, collectively known to us as the Praetorian Guard, evolved from the personal bodyguard units employed by Roman commanders. At the founding of the Republic in 509 BC, they had been specifically charged with protecting the Praetor, the most senior elected Roman official, before the post was superseded by that of consul. Throughout the Republican period, the term could be used quite informally to refer to the group of friends and companions accompanying a Roman commander. In the field, these men would have been welcomed guests in the general's tent, known as the Praetorium. By the late 1st century BC however, the Praetorian Guard would refer to the picked troops who protected the general in that tent. The Civil Wars, a period where loyalty was owed to a single man rather than the state, saw a resurgence in the use of large bodyguard units. Following the death of Julius Caesar, both Antony and Octavian formed multiple Cohortes Praetorii as a part of their own Praetorian Guards. Appian says that they divided between them 8,000 veterans, many of whom had fought under Caesar. When both men turned on one another, their Praetorians became involved in the fighting, and on occasion, faced each other directly. After his victory at Actium in 31 BC, Octavian united his forces with those of his opponent in a symbolic reunification of Julius Caesar's army. This resulted in the existence of nine Praetorian Cohortes after the war, fielding a maximum of 5,400 men. Rather than disband these units, Octavian decided to keep them in his service as a peacetime security force. Ever the prudent ruler, he was extremely wary of blatantly flaunting his newfound power and only billeted three Cohortes around the city of Rome, with the rest scattered throughout Italy. The Praetorians were expected to accompany the emperor in the event of a war, though this was rare in the first century. As a result, these imperial Praetorians took on more and more civil and administrative capacities. They provided security for the imperial household and palaces, but essentially represented a large body of workers who could be put to use fighting fires, providing security at the games, or carrying out political espionage. As important tools at the emperor's immediate disposal, the Praetorians were well looked after. Their pay was doubled relative to a typical soldier, and their length of service was reduced. In 2 BC, Octavian, now Augustus, bureaucratized their command structure by appointing two Praetorian Prefects to take overall command of the Cohortes, which had previously functioned independently. By the end of his reign, the Guard was on its way to becoming an entrenched part of Roman life in the capital. The number of Praetorian units in Rome would continue to grow, with up to 16 Cohortes being recognized under Vitellius. The amount of men in each Cohorte is also disputed, but it seems that they were inflated compared to a typical legion. This results in a theorized total strength of around 6,000 men under Augustus and 12,800 under Vitellius. During the reign of Tiberius, the Praetorians continued to rise in importance. The Praetorian Prefect, Lucius Aelius Sejanus, became a close advisor to the emperor and exerted significant influence over the ruler. In 23 AD, Sejanus managed to bring all the Praetorian Cohortes to Rome by constructing a fortified garrison atop the Viminul Hill. This camp became known as the The structure was roughly two-thirds the size of a legionary fortress from the frontier and covered 42 acres with surrounding 12-foot walls. Later construction would substantially raise the height of the curtain wall and added new battlements and towers. From this position, Sejanus was able to consolidate his hold on power and pursue his own ambitions. The Praetorian Prefect embarked on a ruthless program of eliminating his rivals, which included poisoning the emperor's son Drusus. His conspiracy to claim the throne was eventually revealed in 31 AD and he was killed along with his conspirators. Such abuse of power would prove to be a recurring theme for the Praetorian Guard. As the largest armed force in Rome, they carried tremendous leverage over the emperor and showed themselves unwilling to put their privileged position at risk. This often involved biting the imperial hand that fed them. The Praetorian Guard generally participated in appointing emperors and was involved in the murder of Caligula, the disorders of 68 and 69 AD, the lynchings of Domitian's killers, and the assassinations of Pertinax, Elagabalus, Balbinus, and Maximus. They even went so far as to auction off the throne to the highest bidder from the walls of the Castra Praetoria. Some emperors did attempt to rein in the power of the guard. Septimius Severus, for instance, believed that recruiting troops too familiar with politics in Rome was dangerous and thus made it policy to draw guards from the frontier legions. Diocletian's rule in 285 AD introduced the Jovia and Herculanea city legions which further diluted the Praetorian's influence. However, the final death blow was struck in 312 AD when the Praetorian Guard took a stand with Maxentius at the Battle of the Milvine Bridge. Here, Constantine won his famous victory and the Praetorian Guard was disbanded permanently, replaced by new Scalae Palatinae units. Praetorian prefects continued to be appointed but served merely as financial administrators. And like that, after over 300 years of existence, the Praetorian Guard receded into history. The Praetorians were originally legionaries handpicked from among the active units of the army. Under Augustus, their recruiting grounds were strictly restricted to Etruria, Umbria, Latium, and the old legion colonies in Italy. This was eventually expanded to include Spain, Macedonia, and Noricum, which were some of the most prosperous and romanized parts of the empire. During the reign of Septimius Severus, the doors were opened up to all legionaries and most recruits came from the provinces. Dio said this made transfers to the Praetorians a kind of prize for those who had proved their bravery in war. To others, this shift eroded the perceived elite nature of the guard. Generally speaking, the men were recruited between the ages of 15 and 32, slightly broader than the typical range of between 18 and 23 for most legionaries. A man would need to be physically fit, of good character, and from a respected family. Letters of recommendation were very important and proper patronage could open many doors. As a military force, the Praetorians were heavy infantry trained and equipped like legionaries. However, some of their equipment was considerably more ornate and included unique emblems. Praetorian helmets, for instance, appeared to have sported a tall horsehair crest with elaborate details worked into the metal. Shields were similarly well decorated and maintained a rounded shape, as opposed to the increasingly rectangular scutum of the early empire. Each legion had its own emblem displayed on its shield, and the Praetorian Guard were one of only a handful of units known to use the thunderbolt design. Evidence suggests that each Praetorian cohort had its own unique variant. Additionally, wings, stars, and crescents were probably painted on their shield boards, with scorpions featuring prominently as well. Guard units were also unique in that their standard bearers wore lion-skin capes as opposed to bear-skin capes of their legionary counterparts. The standards themselves used the image of Victoria, winged goddess of victory, and were so heavily decorated with awards that men reportedly had difficulty carrying them on long marches. The rest of a Praetorian's kit matched what the average soldier wore. This included the famed Lorica segmentata and later Lorica squamata armor variants. Swords, daggers, and pilla were standard fare. The key difference between field and guard units was that the Praetorians were often far removed from the threat of combat. As such, they rarely made full use of their equipment outside of the parade ground. Instead, they could be seen carrying a pillum and shield with tunics, neck scarves, and cloaks rather than armor. Depending on their duties, a guardsman might even wear a toga to reflect civilian garment but still remain conspicuous in a crowd. The Praetorian Guard was founded on active wartime units and was expected to accompany the Emperor on campaigns. They served in Augustus' Cantabrian War, Germanicus Caesar's campaigns, Trajan's Dacian Wars, as well as the 3rd century Eastern campaigns. Exceptions did occur when the Praetorians were sent to the front without the Emperor. Notably, at the Battle of Idistus Vissus in 16 AD, 2,000 Praetorians were sent by Tiberius to reinforce the eight understrength legions facing Arminius. The guardsmen took center stage in the Roman line and helped win a great victory over the Germanic tribes. In these military endeavors, the Praetorians proved to be capable soldiers, often fighting toe-to-toe with other veteran units. For the most part, however, the Praetorian Guard was comfortably back at Rome, dealing with clandestine action. Here, they were tasked with a variety of duties requiring large numbers of trained personnel. Primarily, they provided security for the imperial household and palaces, but also stationed a cohort to keep order at the games and theaters. The Praetorians operated the city prison, carrying out death sentences imposed by the Emperor and the Senate. Additionally, they partook in routine civic administration of the city, with tasks ranging from map making to engineering work. Augustus established the Praetorian pay as double that of legionaries. Under Tiberius, this was increased to triple pay, where the guard received 720 denarii per year, compared to the 225 of the legionaries. This differential is likely to have remained in place throughout the history of the guard. Additionally, it became custom for each new emperor to win the troops over by giving them gifts of money, known as donatives. Naturally, it made sense to secure the goodwill of the Praetorian Guard, and so, they were paid exorbitant bribes to the tune of 3,750 denarii a man under Claudius, and 5,000 denarii under Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus. Mark Anthony had initially set a 12-year enlistment period for his Praetorian Guard, which Augustus raised to 16 years. This is to be contrasted with the 25 years of service expected of a typical legionary. The basic ladder for promotion consisted of the following, induction into the guard and service as a probatus under one of the sentries in a cohort. Several years of good service could lead to the post of an immunus, who might serve as a technician. Next up, one could receive double pay by becoming a principalus entrusted with passing on the watchword, an optio who served as a centurion's deputy or a signifier who carried the standards. Highly literate and innumerate soldiers could be appointed to the Praetorian Prefect's staff. Only a small number of soldiers would ever be able to progress into the enormously prestigious and well-paid rank of centurion in the Praetorian Guard. This position was the culmination of a long career and held no restrictions on the length of service. The highest echelons of the Praetorian Guard were extremely selected. Tribunes who led each Praetorian cohort were Roman knights with extensive resumes. They usually would have passed through the ranks of the guard and transferred to a legion where they served as centurion, then senior centurion, and finally primus pilus, followed then by a year as tribune in the vigiles for a year and another in the urban cohorts. Other paths were available, but nevertheless, the year-long term as tribune of the Praetorian Guard attracted veterans with remarkable military experience. The highest post of Praetorian Prefect was such a powerful position that it was almost unheard of for an individual to attain it through conventional promotion. Instead, this position was generally held by appointees of the emperor. These prefects were amongst the most influential men in the empire, and some would even go on to become emperors. Upon retirement, Praetorian Guards could expect continued preferential treatment. They received discharge bonuses of 5,000 denarii as opposed to the 3,000 denarii, which was standard for the legions. In addition, the Praetorians would be presented with bronze diplomas which automatically legitimized their first marriage and the children born of them. Soldiers who had received their discharges might also go on to enlist in evocati units. We can now reflect back on our initial question, who were the Praetorian Guards? Special forces, dictatorial musclemen, or ceremonial relics? The short answer is none of these. The Praetorians were not equivalent to modern special forces, though at first the guard did represent cream of the crop troops, they were largely removed from frontline military action and spent most of their time taking on domestic missions of a civil and administrative nature. The Praetorians were somewhat similar to dictatorial musclemen in that they served as tools of a thinly veiled military regime seeking to control the population and political opposition. Over time, though, they grew their own independence and often played the role of Finally, the Praetorians were not ceremonial relics. This flies in the face of their active participation in many important military campaigns and their contributions, for better or worse, to the political destiny of the Roman Empire. In the end, we should perhaps best reflect on the story of the Praetorian Guard as a reminder that absolute power corrupts absolutely and that often comes at the price of freedom.