Great White Territory Inside the Shark Diving Industry The Blue Realm FD Ocean

It's difficult to imagine. Some people want to see big sharks in the water, especially photographers. These animals are some of the most iconic photo subjects in the sea. But how do you get close to them? For decades it's been done with chumming, attracting the sharks with bait. The practice is now being questioned, even banned, in many countries because of a dramatic increase in attacks. White sharks' main food sources, seals and sea lions, are on the move. Global warming and other factors are driving both their prey and the sharks into new territory, and sometimes we're right in their paths. At Mexico's Guadalupe Island, deep water cages provide a fisheye view of great whites. At depth and with minimal baiting, the animals display a surprisingly calm and curious nature. Through satellite and acoustic tagging, researcher Dr. Mauricio Hoyos studies great white migration and behavior. Two other large pelagic sharks, hammerheads and oceanic whitetips, are facing grave declines in their numbers. Like great whites, the fins of these increasingly rare sharks are in high demand for shark fin soup. New international laws now ban commercial trade in these species, but will the measures be effective protection for these endangered animals? In April 2012, a champion South African surfer was killed by a great white. Shark tourism operators and filmmakers were initially blamed. Both groups were chumming in the area at the time of the attack. The baiting of sharks is possibly a factor in some fatalities, but there are other issues to consider, such as the changing migration patterns of their prey species, and there are more of us in the water than ever. There have been more deadly white shark attacks in the past two years than in the decades combined. What's going on? The thing about shark fatalities is they're spectacular and they command the media. They're going to lead on the front page. If it bleeds, it leads. So what's going on is there are more of us. This is a busy planet. We've passed seven billion people and a lot of us like to be in the water. And the fact is that other marine mammals like to be in the water in many of the same places, and they're prey species for large sharks, particularly white sharks. We are recreating in areas where there are big pinniped populations, and people are surfing there, people are diving and snorkeling, free diving, swimming. We're living in the neoprene era now, and when you take a pink ape and you clad them in neoprene and you put them in the water and they're floating on the surface, they look an awful lot like a seal from underneath. So I think a lot of what we're seeing in shark attack and white shark attack particularly is mistaken identity. Dr. Chris Harvey-Clark is a shark researcher and the director of animal care at the University of British Columbia. His studies with other large cold water animals such as sixgill and greenland sharks show they have many similarities to great whites. Most species behavior, even our own, is primarily driven by the urge to eat. It's all about the food. Pinniped populations are growing in some areas, and certainly central California, some of the pacific islands around Australia, around New Zealand, populations are protected so they're growing. They're outstripping local food resources and moving around, and with them move the large predators. So you may see white sharks occurring in places they haven't been before, and of course these are also places where people in the water, they're surfing, they're snorkeling, and inadvertently being bumped and attacked by white sharks. The increase in great white attacks is clearly more about more of us being in the water near their prey species, and although the baiting of sharks remains a contentious issue, the practice helps fuel a growing industry, shark tourism. We just departed Ensenada, Baja California North, heading down to Guadalupe now, heading south-southwest 185 nautical miles. A beautiful day today, hopefully it stays that way. I'd always like this. Historically there were just a handful of locations where you could regularly see great whites up close, primarily South Africa, Australia and California. White sharks though are rarely encountered in these places now, or conditions are so challenging it's nearly impossible to get in the water with them. Mexico's remote Guadalupe Island is the premier destination in the booming business of white shark tourism, and if you're putting people in the water with great whites, you need to protect them. These cages we have are tough cages. I'd put these cages up against any shark on the planet and I have no doubt that we would be safe inside there. I'm personally inside the cages every day too, so I wouldn't put our guests in these cages if I didn't think they're safe, so they're extremely tough, yeah. Although the cages are made of aluminum, they're still incredibly heavy and dangerous to maneuver. Okay we'll take the surface cage next guys. Even in calm seas, lifting them with a hydraulic crane is a delicate operation. All right clear that line guys. I believe this is our third season now with these submersible cages, and it really offers a different perspective to see a shark swimming above you or even approaching the cage from above. Watch yourself there Bob, swings right at you. At first light, it's time to deploy the cages. You're gonna pick it up, you're gonna swing it, and you're gonna lower it right here. You want to pull them down a little bit? In addition to the two deep units, there are two surface cages. It's a full charter, and there are lots of guests. All four cages will be busy. Pool is almost open. It's a big job to ensure customers are well equipped and safe. The dive deck is cluttered with dive gear and support crew. Let's do it. I've been diving all over the world, and I am so excited to do this dive. I've done wrecks, I've done reefs, I've done it all. Now I get to do the ultimate, diving with the great white sharks. I am so excited. Guests breathe air through a regulator, much like scuba divers. But instead of using tanks, compressed gas is supplied from the surface. Each diver needs to be heavily weighted to stay firmly at the bottom of the cages. I've done a lot of diving in Hawaii, French Polynesia, Great Barrier Reef, and on this boat at Socorro. But great white sharks, this is a first. All right folks, two-person gauge is ready. If you want to start loading up, first dive of the trip. Rock and roll. Oh, this is nice water. I want to watch putting your hand right there because it's a pinch point, okay? Okay. Bill, there's nobody I would rather take. Here's your regulator. Okay. When you get down to the bottom of the cage, I'll hand you the camera. Just step away from the ladder, make room for Jan. Okay. I've been at this 46 years diving out in the ocean, but I've never ever seen or dived or even filmed the great white. So I'm ready to go. This is really exciting for me. And white sharks are dream animals for most photographers. Even though the crew no longer baits with a chum slick or bloody fish parts, the sharks show up soon after the cages are deployed. The big animals seem more relaxed, perhaps even curious at depth. The combination of deeper cages and less baiting seems to be a great success. Our two submersible cages are a little different from your standard surface cages that most people are familiar with. We lower those down depth of 10 meters. We use hydraulic winches, which are on the stern, and we have a crew member that operate each cage. They're operated from the surface, one crew member lowering them down, lowering them back up again also. They have a lot of backup systems in case of emergency, in case if something happens. They're equipped with ballast tanks so that if we do need to bring the cage up before the scheduled time, the dive master can load those ballast tanks with air and the cage will come at a controlled rate up to the surface. If we get cut off from the surface supplied air for some reason, then we have backups. We have scuba tanks down there that we can use to fill the tanks and also to breathe off of. Well, the idea behind the submersible cage is that we get to observe the sharks in their more natural environment, as opposed to the past, the surface cages, where the idea was to be throwing buckets of blood, throwing chunks of tuna and luring them in close to the surface cage. And the behavior you see from the surface cages, that behavior, the sharks agitated, excited from the chumming. The submersible cages, on the other hand, you've got a cage full of people down there, you've got lots of heartbeats, lots of electromagnetic activity. The sharks are attracted to that, but in a different way than they are to the blood. They're not so excited, they're curious, they come cruise around the cages, they're very deliberate in their motions, move very slowly, and you get to see the white shark as they truly are, as opposed to the white shark that's most often portrayed on TV and movies like Jaws. After a couple of dives, the sharks start to get bolder. They circle tighter and tighter to the For guests, it's what they came for, a thrilling close-up encounter with the infamous Great White. The sharks get so close, you could reach out and touch them, but that's not a very good idea. Oh, that was awesome. There were three sharks circling around and circling very slowly, smoothly, but they come in closer, close past where you can almost reach them with your hands. It's my fourth season out here diving with the white sharks, and I've never been sick of it. I don't think I can say I've ever been bored down there. In fact, every time I'm getting ready to go in, I'm excited to see the sharks again, you know. It's some of my favorite diving to do. The youngest shark diver was 14-year-old Samantha Morrow. The Canadian teenager logged more dives than most of the guests. Even though the water was a bit chilly, it was challenging to drag many of the guests out of the cages. They couldn't get enough of the enigmatic animals, and divers got a once-in-a-lifetime close-up experience with Great Whites. Nowadays, we're not feeding the sharks, we're not wrangling the sharks, and we're not putting heavy slicks of chum in the water to get the sharks to the cages. However, occasionally we do put a hang bait down to put a little scent in the water to bring the sharks in. If we want to show the sharks to these people and educate people about the sharks, then it's something really that I feel that we have to do to bring the sharks to us and keep them there. The current law is that you can't use any tuna, any scent in the water. However, this year, just this season, they have decided to allow you to apply for a permit to use a certain amount of tuna to attract the sharks. The sharks really do come in close, even with minimal baiting. Oh my gosh, that was amazing. There's so many close-up sharks, probably like three or four. Congratulations, Embo, this big shark dive. You made it. Got all your fingers? Yeah. Okay, that's all that counts, isn't it? Oh man, that was unbelievable. That's the second dive today and it was better than the first one. More sharks, bigger and closer. They were huge, huge, gorgeous animals. We should have brought our shark dental floss. There are some people who feel that any form of baiting should be banned. It's clear, though, the sharks would likely not approach closely without an incentive. A simple hang bait is usually enough to draw the great whites close to the cages. The sharks are intensely curious animals and even though they're a bit calmer with less baiting, it can still be an unnerving experience. Mauricio Hoyos is fascinated with white sharks. As a university student, he wanted to make the animals the focus of his doctorate. But there were supposedly very few of the animals in Mexican waters. I spoke with my advisor and I told him I would love to study the white shark. But he told me, Mauricio, we don't have a lot of white sharks in Mexican waters. That was in 2000. And two years after that, we found out that we have the best place to see white sharks in the world. And that's why I have been in Guadalupe Island for nine years and I would do anything to know more about them and to protect them. There are no permanent research facilities on the island, so Mauricio teams up with various tour boats as a ship naturalist. He's especially fond of working with children and introducing them to these amazing sharks. When I was a kid, I remember that we went to the United States and my father gave me $20 and he told me, OK, this is all the money that I'm going to give you. You have to buy a lot of toys or whatever you want. And there was this small shark and it was $20. I bought it because I really wanted it. And my father was really upset because he told me, hey, that's all your money. You have to, you can buy a lot of different toys. No, no. I want that toy. And I still have it because since I was a little kid, I loved sharks. When I saw the first shark, it was like the dream of my life came true. It was amazing. It was a huge female, maybe four meters long. And since then, I have been working here on this island every, every autumn. Guadalupe, it's a very special place because it's an island in the middle of nowhere. And it is influenced by the California current system that it has a lot of cold water, a lot of nutrients. Guadalupe shark numbers appear to be growing. More new sharks means the population is thriving. There was a study and they wanted to know the number of sharks that we have year after year. And I think that it is up to 130 sharks. But every year I have seen new sharks. Most of them are juveniles. And that's very important for Guadalupe Island. Older established sharks sometimes don't return to the island. They may migrate somewhere else or die off. Seeing new juveniles indicates these animals are being born at Guadalupe or somewhere nearby, which is an encouraging sign. We have found that the males arrive to the island in July and females in September, October. They depart the island in February, most of them. But also we have found that some of them remain on the island for up to 10 months in the case of the In Guadalupe we have three different species of pinnipeds. The Northern Elephant seal, the Guadalupe seal and the California seal lion. And that's one of the preferred prey sources of the white sharks because they have a lot of fat and fat has twice caloric value than proteins. So I have seen that in December when the Northern Elephant seals are coming to the island to give birth and to mate, the sharks know that and they are waiting for them. But I have seen when they finish it all. I was there in December and it attacked a female she was maybe 800 kilograms and the shark it was a big female more than five meters and she killed the seal and she ate everything in front of me in less than 25 minutes. For a prey animal that's in constant peril, the seals here don't seem to be too concerned as long as they can see the sharks. And if it gets a bit too scary for the seals, they sometimes even climb on the back of tour boats for protection. To gain a better understanding of the shark's local movements and their long distance migrations, Mauricio Hoyos uses high-tech tools such as satellite tags and acoustic transmitters. The devices reveal the shark's depths, migratory patterns, locations and water temperatures. But even with advanced technology, there's still a lot we don't know about these enigmatic animals. In order to know the local movements of the sharks, we are using ultrasonic telemetry. We have to set ultrasonic transmitter in a shark and that transmitter is going to emit a pulse that we can detect in two devices. One, that it's a portable receiver that we have in the boat. So as soon as I tag the shark, I have to follow that shark for 24 hours. Put it right here, right here. Okay, excellent. We are setting underwater receivers in several different parts of the island and these receivers can get all the information and storage that information for up to one year. The white sharks at Guadalupe spend over half a year away from the island in open water between California and Hawaii. But what they're doing way out there remains a mystery. A few of the animals have been satellite tracked to a remote location in the middle of the Pacific dubbed the Great White Cafe. It's thought that thousands of the sharks congregate each year at the mysterious spot. No one is even sure whether they are mating, chasing tuna or even giving birth out there. For such a remarkably well-known creature, we actually know very little about them. But Mauricio Hoyos is determined to find out more. Yeah, the shark is not here. Maybe we can go a little bit to the north. Okay. Guadalupe is a protected biosphere of Mexico. Yet with minimal funding or monitoring, the sharks are under constant threat from poachers. And there's growing political pressure to restrict the activities of tourism operators. Baiting and chumming of white sharks remains a contentious issue. If the tourism operators are not allowed to attract the sharks, they won't go to the island again. There's a big problem with poachers. The Mexican Navy is doing a great job, but they cannot be there all the time. So these kind of boats are as extra set of eyes taking care of the sharks. So I think that we have to find a good way that it's good for the sharks and good for the tourism operators. I mean, not just ban the baiting, but let's do a study to find what would be the best way to attract the sharks without interfering with the natural behavior of the animals. Stills photographer David Fleetham is just one of a handful of image makers that earn their living taking pictures of marine animals. And one of his favorite subjects is sharks. For most amateurs and professionals, getting the perfect shark picture can be an obsession. His iconic image of a sandbar shark was the first and only underwater photo ever used on the cover of famed Life magazine. Great whites, though, are the holy grail of shark photos. The first time that I photographed a shark underwater was in British Columbia. It took several trips, but eventually at about 130 feet, I had this 12, maybe 14 foot long, six gill shark, huge girthy shark go swimming by me with really little interest shown in me whatsoever. I was hooked after that on shooting sharks. And then the next shark on the list was, of course, a great white. The great whites that are around Guadalupe Island. That spot is just really developed into what's got to be the best place in the world to photograph great whites underwater. White sharks are the quintessential marine predator. If anyone who associates danger underwater, they think of this massive white zeppelin looking shark bristling with teeth coming straight towards them with Jaws music playing. And inevitably, any image that you take of a white shark, people are going to enjoy looking at it. Photographer Andy Merge is so enamored with sharks, they're the only species he films. His database of shark images is perhaps the most comprehensive in the world. I started as a diver before I became a photographer. After I really fell in love with the ocean and with sharks, I decided that I wanted to record as many of the animals that I had seen underwater as I could. So I started to build this portfolio of shark and ray images, which was what I was mostly interested in. And after a while, that database grew big enough that I was able to actually start selling the pictures and become a professional photographer. I don't think that my interest in sharks comes from the fact that they're scary or they've got big teeth or anything like that. It's really more of a fascination with how majestic they are, how beautiful they are, how graceful when they swim through the water. They're absolutely stunning animals and if you catch them with just the right light and on a nice clear day, it's an absolutely magical thing to see underwater. Sharks have a presence, especially if you can make eye contact with a shark. It's very, very engaging and I think that that same feeling that you get when you're underwater taking photographs of them or shooting video, when that image is presented to somebody above the surface, when they see that, I think that it's very captivating for them too. If you can capture that moment where a shark turns towards you and it's looking at the camera, when the person above water sees that, they're sucked into that image. It's a bit of a fantasy, but my ultimate goal is to try to photograph every species of shark out there. And I'm not just doing this because it would be a fun thing to do or because I have OCD. I think that getting images of all of these sharks will be very useful for conservation purposes in the future. And that's critical to me, that we have those images so that if anybody starts some kind of conservation initiative for a particular species, I'm able to supply an image so that people can really appreciate the animal that we're trying to protect. And one shark species Andy has taken many photos of, the Oceanic Whitetip definitely needs all the help it can get. To dive with and photograph the elusive Oceanic Whitetip, shark advocate Stuart Cove and his crew travel to waters off Cat Island in the central Bahamas. Like Great Whites, Oceanic Whitetips need a little incentive to approach the dive boat. You got it, man. Good that no one sees. I don't mind it. This is what our little darlings like to eat, so gotta give it to them. Come here, little puppy. Just for you, Ted. So this is our Oceanic Whitetip, the first one to show up. Got a beautiful day. Stuart is perhaps tempting fate a bit, but he's got lots of experience with these sharks. I think we can go in. It won't take long for his friends to come. Baiting and chumming is a controversial practice with all sharks. But the fact remains that the only way to entice the animals is with bait. What are you doing? I'm just having some fun. Stuart Cove's business revolves around shark tourism, and if you're paying to see an animal in the wild, you want to get as close as possible. Wrangling sharks with a baited line is one surefire way to excite the sharks. Oceanic Whitetips do have a bit of a reputation. They've been implicated in numerous shark attack fatalities, especially with shipwreck survivors in the open ocean. But they have a lot more to fear from us. When these increasingly rare sharks are encountered, they're very small. The few Oceanics that remain are a fraction of the size of their historic counterparts. Oceanic Whitetip sharks have pretty much become the poster shark for shark conservation now. Their numbers were depleted so much in the Gulf of Mexico, and it was recorded that there was only 2% left of the initial population. So because of this, they became effectively the mascot for shark conservation. And this is very important because we need those species that we can illustrate how bad it's got. Oceanic Whitetip sharks are open ocean predators. So unlike most sharks that hang out on different reefs, they rarely come in contact with land whatsoever. They're out chasing tuna or various other migrating species in the very, very deep ocean, far, far from land. And because of this, they've come in contact with unregulated finning in many parts of the world where there's no monitoring. There's no way to protect them because past international limits, fishermen can do more or less anything they want. Oceanic Whitetip shark. This is a beautiful shark. Carcharhinus longimanus. Longimanus being the long, beautiful, pectoral fins these sharks have. A really interesting shark because when you see them underwater, you usually often don't see the shark. You see little white flashing shadows off in the distance. And these shadows, it's thought, are actually mimicking the movement of prey fish species. They look a little bit like a far off glimpse of some silvery fish off in the distance. And it's thought that this may actually provide other prey species that these whitetips are taking with a little bit of assurance. It's just a school of fish out there and then bam, oceanic comes in and hits you. What's happened to oceanic whitetips is that we've seen a century of industrial fishing in the Atlantic, and particularly longline fishing, and it's taken them out. Their population has declined 98 or 99 percent. They were once the most prolific shark in the Atlantic, even more so than the blue shark, which is astounding because of the biomass of blues. One of the most enigmatic sharks is the great hammerhead. These rare creatures are certainly an unusual shark. Massive animals, their distinctively shaped head separates them from more typical species. And no sharks have more desirable or valuable fins. One of the most consistent places to find hammerheads is the tiny island of Bimini in the northern Bahamas. You know, great hammerhead, you can sometimes have a lucky opportunity to see them. But this here in South Bimini, it's guaranteed hammerhead action. We're less than a mile offshore, 20 feet of water. The sharks come very close to South Bimini. And it's great because it's only a five-minute boat ride to the site. Like oceanic white tips and white sharks, hammerheads need a bit of incentive to approach divers. We grabbed a huge bag of just some local Bahamian fish. Grunt, schoolmasters, little barjacks. I'm just cutting it all up into pieces. I'm going to put it in a bucket with some oil and some salt water, mash it all up. And then when the sharks come, we put it in the water. And it's an attraction scent, so we like to call it our shark soup. The question remains, though, does baiting adversely affect the natural behavior of the sharks? Most large sharks are attracted to handouts of food. Even just the scent of fish blood in the water can usually bring them into close contact. But does it make them more dangerous? It's just an awesome experience to see these huge animals swimming right up to you and around you. Fantastic. The way I feel about these hammerheads, I've dived with a lot of species of sharks here in the Bahamas, but this great hammerhead is probably the highlight of all the sharks. They are huge, 15 feet long with heads three feet wide and six foot high dorsal fins. And they stay with us and they swim right around us very closely. The water is crystal clear here in Bimini and only about 20 feet deep, so you can have an hour plus dive. The gentle giants, I don't feel at all intimidated by the sharks. Very comfortable. I don't feel they would bite you. They're not interested in us. At one point, I was holding a fish and it came after the fish. I put it behind my back. It went around me to my back. I moved it back to the front. It came around to the front. It wasn't interested in biting me. It was just interested in the fish. Even though hammerheads have been proven to be relatively shy and non-threatening animals, they're still that nasty reputation to deal with. Old perceptions die hard. Introducing them to scuba divers might help to change our views. This is such a unique experience here in South Bimini with these great hammerheads. I would like to introduce more and more people to it, particularly photographers. It's such a great opportunity to get incredible images of these huge sharks. Photographers are definitely fond of hammerheads. They are a very distinct and unusual species. Depending who you talk to, there's either nine or ten species of hammerhead sharks in the world now. And by far the most iconic and impressive is the great hammerhead, which can grow to extremely large proportions and is very, very angular. It has this huge, long witch's hat, dorsal fin. It's just a very spiky shark when you see it in images. And I think that that's very captivating for a lot of people. In the Bahamas and much of the Caribbean, hammerheads have long been viewed as man-eaters. Although they have attacked humans in the past, it's been decades since one of the animals was involved in the fatality. You need to turn people onto it so they can get the word out that these great hammerheads aren't this indiscriminate killer. Because you think a great hammerhead and you think, oh my God, I've got to get out the water. They're going to eat me. One of the hardest groups to convince that hammerheads pose a minimal threat are fishermen. You know, just yesterday we were in Bimini Harbor trying to get some carcasses to feed the sharks. And this very nice gentleman kindly gave us his carcasses. Couldn't believe we were diving with these great hammerheads. And he was bragging about how many great hammerheads he's killed over the years, strictly for trophies. His understanding was they were terrible killers and they needed to be killed. But we've changed his mind. He won't be killing any more great hammerhead sharks. And the more people we can bring down here and show them how gentle these guys are, the more the word's going to get out. And we can make a difference in this endangered species. Open ocean wanderers, great whites and other large pelagic species are critically endangered over much of their historic ranges. White sharks are now protected in most countries. Other species, however, oceanic white tip numbers have dropped globally by more than 90 percent. Hammerheads are targeted relentlessly. It doesn't help that their dorsal and pectoral fins are very large and valuable. Big sharks have big fins. And as most sharks are scavengers, they easily fall prey to baited long line hooks. We have a century now of massive industrial fishing that's gone on in the open seas, virtually unregulated, to the point where most of their populations are severely threatened. They're 85, 90 percent gone. We have pounded sharks mercilessly. This is the end of the end. So we've had a century of bycatch. We've had directed fisheries. And now, with the value of these fins anywhere from $80 to $160 a kilo, we're now with the last of the buffalos 150 years ago in the ocean. We are now seeing the last of these magnificent pelagic sharks being taken for their fin value. For decades, conservation groups and researchers have been raising the alarm over the wasteful practice of shark finning. We've been killing tens of millions of the animals without careful consideration of their important role in the marine ecosystem. It finally appears, though, that some of us may be getting the message. CITES, or the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species, has just won a major battle in shark conservation. This year, five new shark species were added to the CITES appendices, which is fantastic news for sharks. We managed to get three species of hammerheads, great hammers, smooth hammers, and scalloped hammers protected, as well as porbeagle sharks, which are related to great whites, and oceanic whitetip. This is a very good start. Of course, it doesn't protect them completely, because all it does is stop international trade. But it doesn't mean that those sharks can't be fished out on a domestic basis. This is all shark. Angel, mako, casson is other species. Probably hammer. That's probably hammer. Finally, somebody has actually set the bar somewhere. We know the CITES process has its flaws, but at least we've got a starting point for the protection of oceanic pelagic sharks. The celebratory food of a culture is a big deal. You're talking about North American culture, our Christmas turkey is a big deal. Most people don't want to give up their Christmas turkey. In Asian culture, the celebratory value of shark fin soup at, for instance, wedding banquets is huge. The fact is there's a big prestige factor associated with the eating of this product, and that's what we really have to shift, I think. We saw this shark within 50 meters of the same site three years running. About 40% of the countries which are taking sharks have absolutely no management plans for any of the sharks they take. They just take and take. There's no allowable catch. There's no limit. You just go out and fish. Even though oceanic white tips and hammerheads are now protected on paper, will the new laws have teeth? The real problem with CITES is it's kind of a coalition of the willing. So if you decide to opt out of CITES, there are absolutely no penalties. So really, where shark protection is concerned, it then goes on to the larger scale of how nations interact and things like trade treaties and so on. Would anybody in the Western world, for instance, step up at an international trade conference and say, we're not going to trade with this country that's over-exploiting sharks? Would that happen? Perhaps it should. There's still a long ways to go to bring many species of sharks back from the brink of extinction. Regardless of their effectiveness, the new CITES rules are a big first step in shark conservation.