The History Of Ceramics Podcast: Korean Potters And Japanese Invaders

Hello and welcome to the History of Ceramics. I'm Stephanie Rosin. And I'm Paul Greenhoush. We travel today to East Asia to explore the complicated relations between Korea and Japan in the 16th and 17th centuries and how this played out in the world of ceramics. So these countries lived in happy harmony while they were making their pottery, Stephanie? Hardly, because this is the incredible story of how ceramics became a major factor in a bitter conflict between the two of them, with repercussions that remain to this day. Yes, it's about how Japan enslaved large numbers of Korean potters and brought them back to Japan, and in doing so transformed the history of Japanese ceramics. This is the story of the Japanese invasions of Korea. Or what sometimes has been called the Ceramic Wars. So I think we should just quickly sketch out what's happening in this region at this point in time. Here we are at the end of the 16th century. The three major powers are tied to each other in all kinds of ways. Overwhelmingly, Ming Dynasty China. That's the giant in terms of size, in terms of power, and we have to say in terms of wealth, and probably inventiveness as well. Its sheer scale gives it predominance. Connected to that, Korea. Korea, a fascinating culture that's always had an intimate relationship to China and itself had had long golden ages. At this point in time, there have been internal troubles. Perhaps Korea is past its most powerful moment. It has internal difficulties, but it's had a long stretch of peace. So at one level, we might say that Korea is looking to China in all kinds of ways, and in itself, it's not especially a military nation and not necessarily a nation that could protect itself in many circumstances. And then we look across to Japan, an island culture with a large number of aggressive warlords and different areas within the Japanese islands constantly at war and constantly fighting. So an aggressive military suite of powers, really, that are preventing Japan from looking too much outside of itself at that stage. So big, powerful China. Korea, relatively passive, but arguably past its best moments in some senses. And Japan, a country still forming itself, with warlords trying to sort themselves out. And so culturally, China is dominant in this period. Absolutely. But actually, the last century or so, we saw the height of classical Korean culture, trade, literature, science and technology. Absolutely. And we might add also, as we know, over the last hundred years or so, several centuries, we've always valued the ceramic of that region. We have. As Europeans. And it became a distinct skill quite often to tell which country they came from. They relate to each other. There are distinct differences, but actually you need or needed a trained eye to be able to tell in many cases. So a clear relationship between the three. Connective tissue. So Korean ceramics. What is it about Korean ceramics, Stephanie? Tell us how you feel about it. Well, I love Korean ceramics. I was quite impacted as a young maker by the Korean celadons from the Koryo dynasty, which is a dynasty that predates the Choson dynasty. And the majority of these come to us from the 12th to 13th century. And they take Chinese celadon and they improve on it. The type of work that I'm thinking about, and I'm thinking about the beautiful Maebong vases that came out of Korea. And so these translate as a plum vase. These vases would have been used to display boughs of plum blossoms. And they're a form that of course comes from China, but really became perfected in Japanese ceramics. This slight curve up from the bottom to a large round shoulder and a very small opening at the top. And these forms are elegant. They're understated. And each Korea, Japan, and China, they're used for different purposes. So here in Korea, we're displaying these blossoms. But what is incredible about these is that this work is not out of porcelain. We tend to think of porcelain as sort of the height of achievement. These objects are made out of stoneware. And artisans uniquely and meticulously carve in different patterns into the surface of these forms. And with tiny tools, removing material or taking stamps and impressing it into the surface. So we have a negative space in the surface of that vessel. And then they meticulously fill those spaces with white and black slip. Slip is just a sort of fancy word for liquid clay. And they would remove any excess of this. And so what we were presented with is the surface of a ceramic vessel with these sort of ornate patterns, often cranes floating in clouds. The lotus blossom presents itself quite often, flowers. And it's this pattern and design that is embedded within the surface. It's not done on top like a painting. And then the celadon glaze on top of this stoneware highlighting these white and black areas, they're magical to look at. They're truly exquisite. You know, in the history of art, we often talk about, you know, the sublime simplicity and purity and so forth. I wouldn't call them simple, but I would call them refined. I would call them elegant. And it's that kind of aesthetic that this Korean technology moves around the world from. Yeah, quite extraordinary. And so the Chinese were buying them back. They were. And the Japanese, likewise, fell in love with them. And it always seemed to me, actually, and I know you always bridle at the word simplicity because, and I would never suggest that simplicity means aesthetic simplicity or intellectual simplicity, but the surfaces quite often have this sublime emptiness with punctuated, as you say, by these little decorations. They're truly wonderful things. And they almost have a religious quality to them as well. They have a spiritual dimension, I always think. And I'm sure that wasn't lost on the people buying them. So we have a situation then in which China is China, inventing things and showing everyone how to do it. The Koreans taking it and perfecting it. And celadon is the major bomb, but we know that the range of ceramic practice in Korea usually picked up from China and then taken into another league. We can look at those techniques, that they are unique to Korea, their use of the celadon glaze over this inlaid or a technique called mishima. You might, we might hear that word. And these objects would be fired in climbing kilns. And climbing kilns are typical to East Asia, typically built into a hillside, almost long and snake-like. Sometimes they're referred to as dragon kilns. We might hear the word anagama or noborigama and they're built into a hillside and it allows the makers to fill these kilns with an enormous amount of vessels. And then each section of the kiln fired with wood can be finished and then they can sort of move on to the next section of the kiln. Because the heat increases. Yes, the heat increases as you go up and these firings can take days and weeks. In the South of Korea, believe it or not, there is a celadon theme park. Is there really? There is, because these things are still worshipped. And there is an archaeologically excavated climbing kiln, which I've been inside. Yes, amazing. And quite extraordinary, firing enormous amount of ware and controlling how fire goes. It increases its heat as it goes up and so forth. So quite extraordinary and a thing to behold. And so we know all of these magnificent Korean ceramics were highly sought after throughout East Asia, but also in Japan. So what was happening in Japan at this time? When we go back to the islands, at this stage, through the 16th century, Japan had been wracked by factional warfare between a number of different warlords who effectively prevented Japan looking outwards at that stage. And then there's a situation in which a single figure comes to power, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, a major figure in Japanese history who, as a warlord, successively, as it were, knocks out each of the other warlords and unifies Japan, so that by 1591, Japan, for the first time, is unified, is a unified nation. So this character, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, quite extraordinary, because unlike many other Japanese leaders, and we can think even through to our contemporary times, Japanese politicians and leaders tend to come from older dynasties themselves. There's a long tradition of that kind of inherited position and power, but he's not. He's from peasant stock, became a samurai, and clearly a major figure in military terms, and to say the very least, tough, and brought Japan into this condition whereby it was unified. So it's sitting there in its islands, an extraordinary military power by now, because all that power has been brought under a single leader, and they're looking around. I do want to also mention that Japan has its own ceramic culture at this point. They're producing really beautiful earthenware and stoneware vessels, particularly from what we today call the six ancient kiln sites. These are kiln sites. Some of our ceramic aficionados out would recognize the seto kilns, tokonami, baizen, shigaraki. It's also this period where Japan develops its own technology, rakuware, and that is a technique of firing that is highly associated with the Japanese tea ceremony. We can be reminded that Buddhism is a large part of life at this point, and rakuware and tea bowls for the tea ceremony have a cultural ethos of something we call wabi-sabi, and wabi-sabi is this brilliant term that refers to the perfections of imperfections. Absolutely, and we would say, as we know, raku and that whole approach to ceramics, it remains powerful today. Absolutely. It's a global phenomenon, effectively. But generally speaking, the ware that's being made out of these historic kiln sites in Japan, they are not having glaze added to them for the firing process. Glaze is coming to us by the accumulation of wood ash on the surface of this stoneware, and it gets so hot that all of the minerals in this ash melt into a thin glaze or layer of glass. They're very earthy. They are, you know, I'm thinking of some of these large storage vessels that would have been fired in stoneware, which start with a narrow base and swell up into a broad shoulder with an opening of five or six inches, and these would have been used to store food. The Korean ceramics, we were referring to them as sophisticated. These are sophisticated in their own way, but perhaps rustic in comparison is a better description. I would say that there's a certain sense in which there was a perception amongst the higher authorities in Japan, and certainly their ferocious leader, that they were in some ways definitely less sophisticated and perhaps less technologically equipped. While we can see how wonderful Japanese ceramic is, there is the old thing of the grass is always greener on the other side, and they're looking across to Korea and China and seeing porcelains and celadons. The other thing as well, Buddhism especially strong in Korea. As you know, Buddhism originally Indian, but especially strong in Korea and areas of China and increasingly powerful in Japan. And the tea ceremony, effectively a religious ritual. And that sense of the sublime, of purity, of the mental and emotional link between the physical and the spiritual world. And the reflections of nature and your surroundings as a part of that. Absolutely. And the Korean wares seemed to the Japanese to reflect that most of all. And so the Korean wares, the celadons and so forth, became highly prized in Japan. So ceramic, no doubt that it's an incredibly important cultural product and extremely valuable at that stage. Probably we would say more valued there and then than anywhere else in the world at that stage. Yes. And so let's return our story to Hideyoshi. It's 1592. What happens? Hideyoshi decides time has come to make use of what he's built, an enormous military power. He decides that he's going to invade China in actual fact for all kinds of reasons, but it's China where he's looking. But he thinks his way into China should be through Korea. Korea's joined to the Chinese mainland, and therefore it would seem logical, a best way to take an army and to take them through. He asked the Koreans, would you mind terribly if I invade your country in order to get to China, one of your friends and allies? Needless to say, the Koreans decide it's not a good idea and refuse. And at that stage, the Japanese decide they're going to lead an invasion into Korea. 1592. And from that point onwards for a number of years, successive wars, the Japan-Korean wars, which have been characterized in various ways. And as we're saying, one of the ways they've been characterized in succeeding centuries was the ceramic wars, which is a fascinating title. So 1592, they initially invade. It goes successfully at first, but then we get into a situation in which it's not going exactly the way that the Japanese would want. The Koreans resist successfully, and the Japanese are pushed back and decide they're going to retreat. They then re-invade in 1597. And the first invasion once again lands in Korea and develops into a gripping, terrible attritional war. The Koreans by this time have been supported by Ming China and therefore have supplies. And there's also a very successful sea battle in which the Koreans effectively win a victory. So the Japanese at this stage decide that there's going to be a retreat, a tactical retreat. So it would be a mistake to say there's victory on either side. But it is an invasion. But it was an invasion and it was not successful. And the Japanese decide to pull back. Absolutely, that's correct. Now, it's at this point that we have to look at another agenda that Hideyoshi and his leadership in Japan had. There is a sense they had that they were less sophisticated and less technologically advanced as their Chinese and Korean neighbors. And there was always going to be a situation in which they could well seek to capture individuals who might push all of these things along in Japan. So the idea of improving the quality of life in Japan through technology and a range of cultural practices was always there for Hideyoshi to bring Japan up to what he perceived to be the Chinese level. So there were huge numbers of people captured in Korea, enslaved and taken back to Japan. We can look to this account written at the time by a Japanese priest who was witness to these events. And he reflects on this brutal treatment of these people. Among the many kinds of merchants who have come over from Japan are traders and human beings who follow in the trade of troops and buy up men and women, young and old alike. Having tied these people together with ropes about their neck, they drive them along before them. Those who can no longer walk are made to run with prods or blows from the stick from behind. The sight of fiends and man-devouring demons who torment sinners in hell must be like this, I thought. So what a remembrance. Powerful. And these people must have been distraught. An estimated 100,000 Koreans were taken and they represented a range of advanced skills. But crucially for us, around 2,000 potters were taken. It's a truly breathtaking story. Ceramic history has always had a dark side, including the enslavement of skilled people. But the scale of this was unprecedented. 2,000 potters. So Paul, what happened to these Korean potters? Well, these master potters were taken back and settled into different areas of Japan, quite systematically we might add as well. And it raises a very interesting point about the whole principles of enslavement, I think, Stephanie, as well, because it's a big feature in ceramics and this is not a unique instance. It's the most astonishing one and the biggest one, but it's not unique. And we think this is because skill is the valuable thing here, rather than material itself. We don't have any records of jewelry and gold and silver workers being taken in anything like the thing, but the materials... That's right, because it's the value. Yeah, it's the value. The value here is the skill. And these Korean masters are spread around the country in key areas where the Japanese think they can bring their technological expertise. And so these Korean settlements, the local lords were charged with protecting these villages. They insisted upon maintaining the Korean language, maintaining Korean traditions within these small communities. But we must remember that they were not allowed to leave. They couldn't leave. Japanese people could come into their communities, but they were not allowed out unless they were supervised in working to find clay deposits, gathering materials. They were still very much enslaved, being forced to make Korean work in Japan. And to say the very least, integration of this population was not on the agenda. No. It was a resource. Yes, yes. It was a knowledge bank. It was an appropriation. It was absolutely that, and being positioned in key areas where it could make a difference to Japanese ceramics. Now straight away, and we move over into your neck of the woods quite quickly here in terms of what these people brought, kiln technologies and expertise in stoneware and celadon clearly provided a big push to the ceramic industry of Japan. But do you want to develop that for us? How do you think it happened? Well, I think certainly these Korean craftsmen had all of this knowledge, and that knowledge can be transferred, right? And so they bring, as we mentioned before, their skills with celadon, stoneware, these high fire climbing kilns, and three key centers emerge. And they located these Korean potters near to centers that were already making some sort of ceramic production. So these three centers emerged, Arita and Satsuma on Japan's largest, most southerly island, Kyushu, and Hagi in the far south main island of Honshu. So let's start by talking about Arita. Yes, it's fascinating, isn't it? Because we think of this as one of the great, perhaps the single greatest center for the rise of Japanese porcelain. And it's a debate whether it's completely legend or whether it's based on fact. My sense is that it is a true story, that it was a Korean master, Yi Sanpyeong, who is credited with discovering the kaolin deposits near Arita, which really led to the growth of the industry. We're talking 1616, so just into the 17th century. And he then began production, a relatively typical porcelain body, which we then associate going forward with Arita. Becomes effectively, you know, the rise of Japanese porcelain. Yes. Led by this Korean master. Yes. And so he discovered kaolin, Paul, and so let's just chat briefly about what that is. Kaolin is the main clay ingredient needed for porcelain. It is a white primary clay, and we cannot make porcelain without it. And so that is the main clay that is used. And so you cannot make porcelain unless you've found the correct deposits. And so presumably, he has that knowledge that he brought with him from Korea. We would say so. And absolutely, it's the magic part of the process, isn't it? Kaolin deposits. And wherever you find, without that, you can't really do the process. And so all the great porcelain centers tend to be there, and Arita is one. So there's a direct knock-on from the Korean-Japanese wars. So it was a pivotal moment. Japan could now produce true porcelain, which they made objects for themselves. But ultimately, Arita ware became known as classic Japanese export ware. This work was exported to Europe with themes that resonated with Western European audiences and came to its height in the 18th century. And this work is made in the spirit of much of the export ware throughout East Asia with themes of Eastern styles and perceptions of perhaps what Western Europeans think China, Japan, and Korea look like. And so we know this is a type of work we can refer to as chinoiserie. And so it's often sort of blue and orangish patterns and details around the rim with a depiction of Chinese or Korean or Japanese life. And so there are some very beautiful Arita ware pieces that picture these Japanese young women holding parasols at the side of a pond with birds and flowers. And this type of decoration is another version of what we would call overglaze enamel. And so this is decoration that's happening on top of an already fired, glazed porcelain piece, and then using ceramic pigments to paint these fabulous decorations on and being re-fired. And I find it, and it's the point you make is fascinating, isn't it, that they're making this for the European market frequently. So Japanese porcelain, but developed by Korean potters. Yes, importantly so. And so the other type of porcelain work that is developed by Korean potters that we often think of as Japanese is also is satsuma ware. And so these Korean prisoners, slaves, are the original artists. Yes, satsuma, perhaps the second greatest center that was developed and pushed forward by the Korean prisoners. And an individual, Dangjil Shim, seen as the major artist that pushed forward this style and the technology that went with it. And one of those technologies is the introduction of something that we call a sagger in contemporary making. And a sagger is essentially a ceramic box that you would put over the porcelain ware when firing it in the wood kiln so that that ash doesn't deposit on the surface of the pottery form. And so this is one of these big leaps that's made from traditional Japanese ceramics. We mentioned that sort of ash glaze developing on the surface of the pot. And you can't spend, well you could, you could spend hours and hours perfecting all this decoration. And if you don't put it into the kiln under some kind of protection, that ash is just going to deposit on the surface of the pot and muddy it up essentially. And so they would have also had to bring this technology of placing the work inside saggers or pre-made ceramic boxes so that all of this decoration is protected. Tell us, I find it fascinating because we know the Europeans didn't have anything like this kiln technology at that time and didn't get it until much later either. But we're still firing with wood. We're still firing with wood. And they achieve these extraordinary temperatures. Yes. That's what these kilns are doing for them. Yes. So they're firing temperatures upwards of 1300 C or 2400 Fahrenheit or so. And that is the key. One of the key ingredients for porcelain or high fire stonewares is that you have to get the work hot enough so that that kaolin we spoke about melts with the other materials and becomes glass-like or vitreous is the ceramic word. And so Europe doesn't know how to do that yet. And you can take these kilns and fire them to increase the heat. Again, it takes a number of days, sometimes weeks, depending upon how large the kilns are. It always raises a kind of magical point for me, I have to say, that is parallel to when were the first ceramics ever made and how did they think through it? The fact that the Chinese and the Koreans understood that you needed to generate that heat in order to transform this stuff they'd just dug out of the ground is really quite magical in itself, isn't it? And is a scientific achievement of great caliber. And clearly that's what the Japanese were valuing. The Japanese looked at porcelain and thought, how do they do that? And so one of the things that I find absolutely fascinating about this story is that these Korean artists, Dangil Shim and others, they stayed in Japan. They had subsequent generations of descendants who continued to lead this style of pottery making. So 14 generations on, we still have the direct descendants of Dangil Shim producing and leading in the continuation of this tradition of Japanese Satsuma style. Right. So echoes of the original Korean-Japanese wars. 14 generations, centuries on. Quite extraordinary. So the third major center we're looking at is Hagi. And whilst we both accept there were pockets of production all over Japan that was inspired by Korea, these are the three main ones. And there, two brothers, Rikai and Rishako, were brought by one of the Japanese overlords and settled in the Ramaguchi Prefecture in that region. By 1604, the Ri brothers had begun producing a new style of pottery that later became known as Hagiware. It was really quite distinct from what was going on elsewhere in Japan, we think. And it came connected after a relatively short period of time with teaware and with the tea ceremony utensils and the whole ritual of the tea service. So Stephanie, tell us about that. That's right. First, let's say it's distinct from the Aritaware and Satsumaware as those were fine porcelain, detailed decoration with images and patterns, mainly for export. Whereas the Hagiware, I think it builds on the traditions of those ancient six kilns. And so if we remember from the beginning of our discussion, we spoke about the way that those were perhaps more rustic and they're natural. The stoneware is being encased in a wood ash glaze. And the Hagiware, it sort of elevates from there. So we have glaze, it's sort of a milky white, it's soft. It's not relying simply on the ash from the wood fire to create some sort of glaze, which can be quite rough, that wood ash surface. And so it's a utilitarian ware. The forms that are introduced by the Koreans are sort of wider, more flared. They're very thin and maybe delicate in form. And so again, we come back to that term of maybe simplicity, but these aren't simple. I know you don't like that term. I know, I know. But they're bringing that refined elegance that we talked about with those Korean celadon. Do you think there's we've raised it already, perfection and imperfection coming together? The idea of wabi-sabi. Yeah. And in this case, I wonder to what extent, you know, you've got this vernacular tradition that was there already. And then this sophisticated additional external source comes in, the Koreans, the sophisticated ones. And the two come together because there is something quite vernacular and quite local and folk-like about this ware. But at the same time, it looks immensely sophisticated to me as well. The two fuse together, do you think? Yeah, I think so. And with the majority of these objects being used for tea bowls, for as a part of the tea ceremony, again, that wabi-sabi perfection of imperfection, these objects celebrate that. The kiln might have warped the form slightly. They feel earthy. They're reflecting the idea of celebrating your surroundings and materials. And so, they feel maybe grounded is the right word. So, we can remember that the tea ceremony is beginning to be formalized. It's a part of this ritual practice within Zen Buddhism. And the idea of wabi-sabi is very much a part of that. And it's being reflected in the ceramics of hagiware. Right. So, these things are all coming together at the right moment in a sense that they have the new technologies in ceramic and the ideas from Korea, which are fusing with their religious practices, basically. And so, these objects that Korean makers are designing and making are becoming rooted into Japanese traditions and ideologies. Absolutely. And the work that is being made from the 17th into the 18th century into today, I would say maybe the most well-known period of this is the Edo period in the 18th century. But it's a much looser aesthetic. It's not as tight and framed as a part of dinnerware, exportware. It is really capturing the ethos of that tradition of the tea ceremony. It's a very, I think, I would say, unique to ceramic practice generally. Quite often, we get a sense of purity and impurity coming together, deliberate impurity of celebrating the fire and the feel of the material. But somehow, at the same time, it feels powerfully pure and direct, which it does have a religious feel. And I'm sure that's why the tea ceremony was a major element within all this. Senryu-riko became known as one of the best, most important schools of the tea ceremony, and that carries forward. These wares were declared national treasures of Japan, which I think is such a wonderful way to commemorate the importance of how this type of ware started as a phenomenon somewhere else and then moved and came and developed on its own. I think there's this parallel thing that happens here. It's not like me as an artist looking back to this work and reinterpreting it and being inspired by it. This is direct appropriation. This is at the same timeline. I'm going to steal this from you, and I'm going to use it because maybe it's better, because it has more skills. But over time, over the generations, it does develop into a Japanese aesthetic. Yeah. So whereas Japanese ceramic was transformed in Korea, it was a different story. In 1618, the Korean government called for the return of their potters, but many were not interested in going back. They'd been forcibly resettled. Their lives were different. But also, it wasn't really an industry to go back to. The infrastructure of Korean ceramics had been largely undermined and destroyed, so it took decades for Korean ceramics to recover. The two nations had a troubled history going forward, and those tensions still exist. Having visited both countries on different ceramic trips frequently, one can sense those tensions are still there, getting better. But nevertheless, this is a piece of history from centuries before which still visits those nations and has not disappeared. We'll be picking up the story of something that we've been talking about today, because we'll be moving to the 18th century, to Europe, and to the race to find the formula for porcelain, otherwise known as white gold. Until then, thanks for listening. Goodbye.