Egypt, the great pyramids of Giza and the necropolis of Saqqara

Located on a plateau, a few kilometers from the city of Cairo in Egypt, Giza is a city located on the left bank of an island, where its delta opens to the north of the country. Giza owes its international fame to its vast necropolis. and to its very famous and very large pyramids, those of Khufu, those of Khafre, and those of Menkaure. The Great Pyramid of Khufu, with its faces aligned to the four cardinal points, measuring over 230 meters each at ground level with a perimeter of 922 meters, weighs approximately 5 million tonnes. Each block of polished limestone weighs an average of two and a half tonnes. Standing at 137 meters, it overlooks the Giza plateau. The Pyramid of Khufu, erected during the Old Kingdom in the Fourth Dynasty, 2650 BC Thus, it is the Great Pyramid, the largest pyramid in Egypt. and which remained the largest until the early 20th century, The tallest and most massive monument ever built. It has been regarded for 2,000 years as one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. The complex also includes a funerary temple, of the subsidiary pyramids, of annexes and a large necropolis of officials contemporary with the Pharaoh with, as guardian, the majestic sphinx. They are all illustrious witnesses of ancient Lower Egyptian civilization. From the base of these pyramids, today renowned tourist destinations, the future French emperor Napoleon Bonaparte, during the Egyptian campaign in July 1798, would have spoken before a decisive battle the famous "Soldiers, think that from the height of these pyramids, Four thousand years gaze upon you. The Sphinx of Giza is therefore the statue standing in front of the great pyramids on the plateau. 73 meters long, 20 meters high, and 14 meters wide, The Sphinx is a monumental sculpture carved into a natural cliff of rock. It is a therianthropic statue because it depicts the intertwining, for mystical purposes, of man and of the animal. Her head turned toward the east. The body of the sphinx is that of a recumbent lion. and the head, that of a sovereign wearing the nemes, The iconic headdress of the pharaohs, adorned with an uraeus, the sacred cobra. His face could actually represent Khufu himself. Several indicators would prove it, such as the observation of his headwear, the width of his chin, the shape of his ears, or his ceremonial beard. Some also believe this could be a dog-shaped statue of Anubis. later recycled by another son of Khufu in honor of his father. The sphinx served as a guardian of the site. or perhaps more precisely, the solar temple built beside the Pyramid of Khufu. If the site leaves one speechless, it hasn't been that long ago, The scholars of the nineteenth century considered themselves incapable to reproduce the technical feats of such works of art. Theories then emerged in an attempt to unravel its mysteries, but the pyramid is above all a tomb and represents one of the purest and most abstract works of art ever conceived. According to Herodotus, Khufu was regarded as a cruel and unjust pharaoh towards his people. This reputation undoubtedly stems from the fact that that one could hardly imagine such a structure as the Great Pyramid to be built in a way other than by slaves in sweat and suffering. Or, recent discoveries following excavations Traces of a city built for artisans and workers on the plateau have been revealed. It appears that they were well-fed and well-cared for. and the cliché of slaves driven forward with whips and beaten to death shattered through discoveries made on site and in tombs. The hypothesis was then put forward that the pyramid project could have constituted a unifying project and a political and spiritual means to achieve the unity of the two lands, that is, the unity of Lower Egypt and Upper Egypt. To these skilled artisans and workers was added a labor force venue of villages from all over Egypt, undoubtedly in a non-permanent manner and moreover, the villages contributed to these great religious projects by sending food supplies to these pharaonic construction sites. The Pyramid of Khufu is therefore part of a larger funerary complex. composed of a funerary temple, and an ensemble consisting of the pyramids and three other small pyramids of queens and numerous mastabas grouped into three cemeteries. Only a small ivory figurine, about ten centimeters tall, depicting him has survived. He is the son of King Sneferu and Queen Hetepheres I. and is considered by some to be one of the greatest pharaohs of the history of ancient Egypt. Its reputation is based mainly on its architectural achievements. among others, those of the Great Pyramid, whose construction lasted twenty years, requiring twenty thousand workers, and considered today as perfection in terms of construction technique and architecture. Although numerous Arab authors have reported the discovery of the pharaoh's body accompanied by his funerary treasure, the contradictions that can be identified in these various accounts cast doubt on the credibility of these testimonies often carried out several centuries later. This uncertainty, along with the reputation of inviolability of the Great Pyramid inspiring many archaeologists and historians to continue searching for the burial chamber that they always remain hidden within the mass of the monument. This research has intensified over the past twenty years, aided in this by new measurement and detection technologies. For over 4,500 years, the landmark monument of Egypt is indeed scrutinized and studied without ceasing. This masterpiece is the concentration and culmination. of all the architectural techniques developed Since the creation of monumental architecture, and the achievements attained make it a pyramid unlike any other. It is easier to describe the external appearance of the pyramid. that the internal massif, whose design is uncertain. The stones of the Great Pyramid have varying dimensions. depending on the height at which they are located. It would seem obvious to note that the closer one gets to the top of the pyramid, and the higher the foundations decrease. Or, this rule does not apply here. The steps decrease in height up to a certain level above the ground. Then, from this point onward, they increase in size until they decrease again, and so on. Thus, there are 18 groups consisting of a variable number of levels. This particularity is explained by the origin and nature of the materials used. A limestone quarry whose subsoil consists of layers of varying thickness. The pyramid, however, does not represent a volume entirely built artificially. The Egyptians indeed benefited from a prominent rocky elevation. on which they built the structure of the masonry. This particularity further exacerbates the problem of extreme precision. with which they leveled the base on all four sides. The entrance to the pyramid is at a height of 15 meters 63. and is topped by a drainage system featuring monolithic vaults and lintels. Today, access to the infrastructure is gained through the breakthrough made by the caliph Al-Mamun in 820. It was dug several meters below the actual entrance and opens onto the ascending corridor. The smooth casing of the pyramid was still in place at that time. and concealed the ancient locking mechanism. This entrance would have been closed using a movable stone. The original cladding made of fine limestone has almost completely disappeared. Only a few blocks remain at the base level. resting on the stones of the pedestal, unlike the pyramid of Chephren She, who is better preserved and still has her hat. The Pyramid of Khufu is therefore part of a larger complex. also composed of the pyramids of his son Khafre and his grandson Mycerinus. Mycerinus is the Greek name of the sovereign Menkaure. during the Fourth Dynasty of the Old Kingdom of Egypt. The Pyramid of Khufu is therefore part of a larger complex. also includes the pyramids of his son Khafre and his grandson Mycerinus. Mycerinus is the Greek name of the sovereign Menkaure. during the Fourth Dynasty of the Old Kingdom of Egypt. He would have ruled approximately from the year 2490 to the year 2473. and would have succeeded Kéfrène. Just like his father and grandfather, he remains committed to the construction of a pyramid in Guizet. It is the smallest of the three great pyramids on the plateau. This pyramid that rises at the southern end It represents only one-tenth of the volume of the Great Pyramid of Giza. With a height of 66 meters and a side length of 108 meters. The reign of Mycerinus rich in monumental achievements Closes in Egyptian art the chapter of the great pyramids. The funerary complex also includes three reindeer pyramids. Moreover, Khufu had also arranged a burial chamber for his mother, heresy step one, after his original tomb had been looted. The remains of the funerary temple erected at the base of the pyramid possess certain blocks weighing up to 200 tons. All around, numerous mastabas grouped into three cemeteries located to the east, behind the Reindeer Pyramids, the other to the south of the Great Pyramid and finally the last one to the west of the king's pyramid in the desert. It was under this magnificent reign for architecture and royalty that necropolises develop significantly around the royal funerary complex. The pyramidal complex of Khafre, the son of Khufu is the best-preserved of the three, whether it be the pyramid, his high temple, its ascending staircase, and the lower temple. It is from this one, as well as from the Temple of the Sphinx Where do the many fragments of statues depicting Khafre come from? that exist in museums. The base of the pyramid is a square with a side length of 215 meters. and originally it reached a height of 144 meters. It was covered with a layer of fine limestone. Not only does the summit survive. The history of the exploration of the pyramid of Khafre blends into these broad outlines up to the 19th century with that of the Pyramid of Khufu. Therefore, one must go back to the time of the Greek historian Herodotus. to find its first description. Upon the death of Khufu, the throne passes to his son Khafre. The latter precisely followed its predecessor in every respect. and did not fail to build a pyramid which, to be honest, does not reach the dimensions of those of Khufu's pyramid. The base of the building is made of Ethiopian stone, veined with various colors. As large as the first one, This pyramid is 40 feet shorter in height. At the Giza site, the various sectors of the Memphis necropolis, the former capital of the Empire south of Cairo are currently designated by the names of the villages that succeed one another at the base of the plateau. Saqqara's cemetery is its oldest section. It was there that was built, around 2765 BCE, the very first construction in dressed stone, The pyramid of Pharaoh Djoser, built well before that of Khufu. The pyramid of Djoser marked an important evolution in monumental architecture. Indeed, the tomb of the pharaoh takes, for the first time and after multiple modifications, the shape of a pyramid. This innovation marked the birth of a new type of burial. The pyramid went through several successive stages before reaching its final form. It is the result of many hesitations, transformations and innovations, both technical and intellectual. It was the architect Imhotep who designed this masterpiece of the Old Egyptian Empire. The funerary complex of Djoser is the largest ever built in Egypt. It consists, besides a step pyramid, of numerous religious buildings. a temple-palace, a deer-god, and chapels, pavilions, shops And finally, a large enclosure surrounds this complex of buildings, extending over more than 15 hectares. The rodent enclosure, that is, with a protruding angle, originally 10.50 m in height, It featured no fewer than 211 bastions evenly distributed along its entire perimeter. The wall had a single entrance located near the southeast corner and 14 false gates. The main entrance, a narrow passage one meter wide, leads to a long corridor. The lateral walls of this structure are adorned with 20 false columns imitating logs, projecting from the wall and standing 6.60 m high. Therefore, they are not yet true columns in the proper sense. The large courtyard is bordered on the south by a façade topped with a frieze of female cobras. Who are the symbols of the monarchy and who embody the protective and destructive powers of the Pharaoh. The three aisles flanked by two rows of clustered columns open into a hypostyle hall. which gives access to the large courtyard oriented north-south. Although the royal apartment had been completely looted since antiquity, The archaeological real estate uncovered during the excavation of this funerary complex is no less of exceptional importance. Thousands of vases and bowls still lie at the bottom of the galleries, awaiting extraction. Two alabaster sarcophagi, one of which still contains the skeleton of a child, remain placed within the royal family gallery. The two houses built at the base of the pyramid represent the sanctuaries of Upper and Lower Egypt. They differ in their decorative elements. The Maison du Sud features proto-Doric capitals that are three meters tall, originally measuring twelve meters. It is topped by a frieze depicting caquerous showing bundles of vegetation tied together, used in the construction of wooden houses. It contains the oldest known tourist graffiti. An Egyptian from the 18th dynasty will thus mark his passage. The scribe Hamosé, son of Opta, came to see the temple of Djezer. He found him as if the sky were within him. He rose up in him. The Maison du Nord, on the other hand, features a façade in the style of a primitive Doric order. The capitals atop the columns are also decorated with lotus flowers. The stone wall of the Serdab, located in front of the pyramid, has two holes on its northern face. It contains a life-sized painted replica of the statue of the pharaoh Djehuti. so that he may see and receive offerings and gaze intently at the stars. The entrance hall and its colonnade therefore open onto the great southern courtyard and the temple of Djoser. Two bay-shaped buildings, eleven meters long, are located at the center of the courtyard. Their functions are undoubtedly related to the Heb Sed ritual, the pharaoh's jubilee. It also contains the remains of a hotel preceded by a small vault measuring 1.60 m by 90 cm, found empty. Near this courtyard, the pedestal of one of the king's statues, now preserved in the Museum of Cairo, was discovered. It is inscribed with the name of Imhotep, the builder of the site, titled Chancellor of the King of Upper and Lower Egypt. The palace administrator, hereditary noble, high priest of Heliopolis, builder, sculptor, and vase maker. The earthquake of October 12, 1992, severely affected the infrastructure of the pyramid and the site. The vault of the great funerary well and the ceilings of several underground galleries threatening to collapse, A rescue mission was ordered by the Supreme Council of Antiquities of Egypt to carry out the restorations. At the same time, studies are constantly being conducted to gain a better understanding of this major monument. A well 28 meters deep, originating at the base of the Cobra Wall, provides access to the southern tomb of Djoser. tomb whose underground layout is a copy of the structures of the Step Pyramid. A long descent, now open to the sky, leads down to a granite vault, followed by living quarters and three shops. The pyramid of Unas, who was the last king of the Fifth Dynasty, in 2350 BCE. It had a primitive height of 43 meters and a side length of 57 meters. It is now greatly deteriorated. Excavations carried out at the beginning of the 20th century enabled the identification, in the sarcophagus chamber, of a series of texts carved into the walls. The Pyramid Texts, the first religious texts of Egypt. Very little remains today of the funerary temple of Unas. but along the causeway leading from his pyramid to the valley temple, They are scattered with numerous mastabas, which are subsidiary tombs within the complex. The Europeans and the Egyptians, who continue to excavate the soil of Saqqara, keep uncovering numerous tombs, to their own astonishment. The mastaba of Ikouraptar, also known as the Tomb of the Butcher, is located below the causeway and dates back to the Fifth Dynasty. Hirut Kapta was the head of the slaughterhouse's road maintenance, that is to say, the king's butcher. Its burial site is known for the row of statues in the first chamber preceding the burial chamber. The eight statues represent the deceased person's family. Although of average artistic quality, the colors are still very well preserved. In the time of the pharaohs, the Egyptians believed in the immortality of the human soul. And to journey through the afterlife, this must be accompanied by the daily images of the deceased and their habits. The Ounass Road, 700 meters long and 6.7 meters wide, It formed a long tunnel illuminated by an ingenious idea: not connecting the slabs forming the ceiling. A longitudinal slit of 20 cm ran the entire length. It was protected by two lateral walls, each three meters high, which supported the ceiling. representing a sky painted blue and adorned with yellow stars. Entries like these litter the roadway. Because the privilege of being buried alongside one's master was then the best way to display his success in what Egyptian society was at the time. The king is at the center of everything and, from his overwhelming monument, dominates a vast necropolis designed in the image of the court. The closer his burial site is to the royal pyramid, the higher his rank. And his courtiers wished to continue serving him in death, remaining as close to their sovereign as possible. The mastaba of the king's manicurists, Khnumotep and Nyangkhnum, is a highly original tomb dedicated to two individuals. But what ties did they share? On both sides of the entrance door, the names of the tomb's owners. To the left, the royal manicurist Khnumotep, and to the right, Nyangkhnum. Moreover, the two men were priests entrusted with the worship of Ra at the solar temple of the Pharaoh. The decoration is very rich. On both sides of the entrance, men can be seen crafting and transporting statues bearing the likenesses of the deceased. Livestock is also brought in, or fishermen haul up fish caught in their nets. Khnumotep and Nyangkhnum hold hands, an姿态 that demonstrates their closeness. They were probably brothers. Their respective wives are represented alongside them. Here, a naval duel. Men grab each other by the hands or with sticks, trying to knock each other into the water. Yes, two men are helping a cow give birth to its calf. One of the two brothers is carried by his servants. A dwarf is distinguished beneath the palanquin. A whole life recounted here, on these walls, like a magnificent documentary. Sakharin's site lies at the edge of the desert, on the fringe of the world of death. Tombs will multiply there throughout the pharaonic millennia, according to the favored locations of the successive royal residences. For this reason, royal tombs and more modest burials are found side by side. and present numerous testimonies about daily life in ancient Egypt. Over time, the simple mudbrick chapel of the earliest mastabas expanded into complex apartments. The setting becomes remarkably refined through the use of high-quality limestones. The vast majority of the superstructure is then occupied by numerous rooms, courtyards, and hypostyle halls. The false door stela has become monumental and generally houses a statue of the deceased. Inside, an altar is used for offerings. During the Middle Empire, with the pharaoh and his court moving away, first to Thebes and then to the Fayum, The necropolis was then somewhat neglected. Under the New Empire, during the revival of the city of Memphis in the 18th and 19th Egyptian dynasties, The nobles and courtiers are once again being reburied at Saqqara. in tombs topped by actual temple-chapels for funerary purposes. The court of the Heb Sed is bordered by a series of chapels. Some are of a simple design, while others feature carved patterns in stone that imitate plants and carpentry elements, Each of them equipped with a niche for offerings. Three of these chapels, devoid of these decorative elements, had flat roofs and appear to share a certain architectural kinship. They would be chapels associated with the principal deities of Upper and Lower Egypt. One can, or cannot, imagine the weight of 3,000 years of Egyptian civilization. When leaving the pyramids of Giza, the Sphinx, and the Saqqara site. 3,000 years of ingenuity, creation, knowledge, and refinement. But also 3,000 years that have elevated the worship of the dead to the cornerstone of the human adventure. Let us take a leap through time and space to reach Edfou, on the west bank of the Nile, 755 km south of Cairo, between Aswan and Luxor. The god of this city was a falcon god. And his temple is dedicated to the worship of Horus. Horus of Behedet. It is the largest and most significant temple of the Ptolemaic dynasty. that is, from the Greek period around 300 BCE. With a length of 137 meters, a width of 79 meters, and pylons standing 36 meters tall, It is one of the best-preserved temples in Egypt. Dedicated to the triad consisting of the father Horus, the wife Hathor, and the son Arsumtus. This temple has great significance due to its inscriptions, which provide detailed information on all the details of the daily worship rendered to Horus and ceremonies marking the four major annual festivals. Walls and columns recount the various rites performed. Two statues of the falcon god in gray granite stand before the entrance of the pylons. The cult of Horus, the one who is above, is one of the oldest in Egypt. It undoubtedly dates back to prehistoric times. He is a god with many facets. He is the celestial falcon, whose right eye is the sun and whose left eye is the moon. He is also Horus of the Horizon, in competition with Ra, both the morning sun and the evening sun. And finally, in the Osirian myth, Horus is the son of Osiris and Isis. Osiris, murdered by his brother Set, and brought back to life for the duration of a union. It is from this miraculous union that Horus, son of Isis, is born. Beyond the great pylons, on the inner face of which a depiction of the king's baptism by Horus and Thoth can be observed, The large courtyard is surrounded on three sides by a colonnaded gallery. These are topped with composite, floral, or green capitals, And their drums are entirely decorated with depictions of the king before the gods. All the columns are different. The decorative program of the courtyard is related to the festivals of Athor and Horus. but also with all the deities having any connection whatsoever with Horus. Offerings, processions, and liturgical activities, as usual, are depicted on the walls. There, one sees the feluccas, using their sails or not, depending on whether they are sailing upstream or downstream along the Nile. The columns are covered with inscriptions and reliefs depicting the king sacrificing to the gods. Here, the wall is decorated with low reliefs depicting the coronation ceremonies of the Pharaoh. At the bottom stands a magnificent statue of Horus the Falcon, wearing the double crown of Upper and Lower Egypt. Carved from a block of gray granite, it guards the entrance to the sanctuary. The façade of the Pronaos is composed of six columns with palmate and floral capitals, Among them rise high walls that separate the courtyard from the interior of the temple, while still allowing light to enter. To enter this part of the temple, the king had to be purified. The reliefs on the façade depict this ritual performed by Horus and Thoth. The ceiling of the vestibule is supported by twelve columns with varied capitals adorned with flowers and palm leaves. Above the door, the winged disk framed by Uraeus represents Horus. On the lateral walls of the vestibule, it is written that the first stone of this temple was laid on the 7th day of Epiphi in the 10th year of the reign of Ptolemy III. August 23 of the year 237 BCE. As we advance into the temple, the floor rises, the ceilings lower, and the light fades. so as to make the sanctuary a dark and mysterious place. The floor of the vestibule leads to a hypostyle hall supported by twelve columns, representing here the twelve night hours. On the walls of this chamber, as on the walls of the first hypostyle hall which serves as a vestibule, a large part of the Egyptian deities are honored. On the northern wall, one finds the procession of the divine boats of Hathor and Horus. On the left, the treasury contained all the valuable objects and the temple's money. On the walls were depicted the elements of the divine ornaments, which were also to be stored here. To the right of this room is the chamber of an island where water intended for the purification ritual was stored. The laboratory was filled with gloves and perfumes whose recipes were written on the walls. The deities of the regions producing the ingredients used in the temple's magical potions are also depicted. Horus, the one who sees far, is at the head of the pharaoh's procession boat. After exiting the hypostyle hall, one enters the offering hall. It was used, as its name indicates, to place divine offerings on altars and sideboards. She communicates with a staircase leading to rooms set within the thickness of the wall. And a staircase allows access to the roof. One of the chapels surrounding the sanctuary houses a replica of the sacred boat. The piece emanates a strong mystical force. A weathered granite naos, 4 meters high, still occupies the center of the sanctuary. There, the effigy of Horus, adorned and anointed with perfume, received a daily offering three times a day, accompanied by music and prayers. On the walls of this chamber are carved the various stages of the deity's awakening and the actions performed by the king or his representative in the morning. In the morning, after climbing the edges of the naos, the high priest broke the seals he had affixed the previous evening. Then he would open the two staffs to reveal the divine statue and allow it to begin its daily creative journey. In the evening, he would close the cedar doors, apply the bars, and retreat backward, brushing away the traces of his footsteps with a broom. This monolithic block over four meters high is still in place. The three radiating chapels surrounding the sanctuary were intended for certain rites, including that of the Feast of the Good Reunion. At this festival, one of the chapels housed the statue of the goddess Hathor, who had come to visit her husband, Horus. Each year for two weeks, this popular event featured major festivities. Between the temple and the enclosing wall, a corridor isolates the temple from the outside world. This one is decorated with scenes depicting the myth of Horus, according to which the god had to, through numerous trials, prove his worthiness to inherit the throne of Egypt. Several major festivals are depicted there, including the commemoration of Horus's victory over Set. as well as the ceremonies of the island's fertility linked to the annual visit of Hathor, who came from Dambéra to unite with her husband. During the Christian era, the temple was converted into a church, which explains the hammering of part of the reliefs. The western wall thus depicts the battle of Horus against Cete, the hippopotamus, the murderer of his father Osiris. To avenge the death of his father Osiris, Horus confronts him. He wins the battle and inherits the throne of Egypt. He is the very first pharaoh after his father. In contrast to Seth, who represents violence and chaos, Horus embodies order, and like the pharaoh, he is one of the guardians of universal harmony. However, one must not reduce the Egyptians' complex theology to a Manichaean conception of good and evil. Since good and evil are complementary aspects of creation, both are present in every divinity. It is this belief that permeates and conveys this valley of an island, imbued with fertility.