The Complete History of Germany on a Map 600 BC 1990

We begin around the 6th century BC. Central Europe is inhabited by the Celts, from the heart of the continent to the British Isles. Further north, in the Jutland Peninsula and in Scandinavia, live the Proto-Germanic peoples, who gradually migrate southward, coming into contact and at times into rivalry with the Celts. In the south, the Celts trade with the peoples of the Mediterranean, notably with the Romans, who are gradually asserting their dominance. Between 58 and 50 BC, Julius Caesar conquers Gaul. The Romans then attempt to subdue the region east of the Rhine, which they call Germania. But in the year 9, they suffer a heavy defeat against a coalition of Germanic tribes in retreat behind the Rhine and the Danube, which become the frontier. Fortifications are built there, though not completely impenetrable, thus allowing for trade and exchange. Over time, some Germanic peoples even ally with the Romans and gradually settle on the other side of the frontier. Towards the end of the 4th century, the Huns, a nomadic people from Central Asia, begin their conquest of Europe. Tens of thousands of Germans flee and cross the Danube to seek refuge on the Roman side. But they are mistreated, leading to revolts that destabilize the region. A century later, in 476, the Western Roman Empire collapses and is replaced by a multitude of Germanic kingdoms. Among them, the Frankish Kingdom converts to Christianity and gradually asserts itself, eventually becoming, in 800, a vast empire under Charlemagne. But later, through wars of succession, the empire is divided with France in the west and, from 962 onward, the Holy Roman Empire in the east, made up of a multitude of princely states under the authority of an emperor elected by the prince-electors and often crowned by the Pope in Rome. At the beginning of the 16th century, to finance the construction of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome, the Church vastly increases the sale of indulgences, offering forgiveness of sins in exchange for money. But in Saxony, Priest Martin Luther opposes this practice and, on October 31, 1517, publishes 95 theses, defending an authentic faith founded solely on the authority of the Bible. The Pope then excommunicates him. Yet Luther continues his struggle and gains the support of several princes who adhere to his ideas, giving birth to Protestantism. Furthermore, Luther translates the Bible from ancient Hebrew and Greek texts to a form of German used by some Saxon administrations at the time. Thanks to the recent development of printing, his Bible spreads throughout the Holy Roman Empire and the Saxon dialect gradually becomes the standard German language, to the detriment of numerous regional dialects. In 1713, Emperor Charles VI of the House of Habsburg, also Archduke of Austria and King of Bohemia and Hungary, issues a decree to make his territories indivisible and to allow his daughter, Maria Theresa, to inherit the throne. He then spends much of his life securing recognition of this decree by European courts. Upon his death in 1740, Maria Theresa ascends to the throne, but is immediately challenged by the new King of Prussia, Frederick II, who invades the rich region of Silesia. France, Bavaria and Spain see an opportunity to weaken the House of Habsburg and join Prussia. Meanwhile, Great Britain and the Dutch Republic, fearing excessive French domination, ally with Austria. After nearly eight years of war, peace is signed. Austria renounces Silesia in exchange for the recognition of Maria Theresa as ruler of Austria and of her husband, Francis of Lorraine, as the new emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. In the following years, rivalry between France and Great Britain over colonies in North America escalates into open conflict. While Britain dominates the seas with its powerful Royal Navy, its army is no match for French forces, and King George II, who is also Elector of Hanover, fears losing his German territories. He therefore allies with Frederick II of Prussia to ensure his defense. France reacts by allying with its historic rival, Austria, which still dreams of recovering Silesia. As Austria is already allied with Russia, Prussia finds itself encircled, and fearing a joint attack, Frederick II takes the initiative. On August 29, 1756, he launches the Seven Years' War by invading Saxony. His army advances into Bohemia, but is repelled into Silesia. In the west, the French army seizes Hanover, while in the east, Russian troops approach Königsberg. A brilliant strategist, Frederick II manages to repel each of the three armies separately, even though his forces are outnumbered in all three cases. The French are later expelled from Hanover by a German army financed by Britain. In the east, after finally joining forces, the Russian and Austrian armies prevail, but fail to exploit their victory and leave Berlin untouched. In 1762, Russia's Empress Elizabeth dies, and her successor, Peter III, an admirer of Frederick II, immediately signs a peace treaty. The following year, the war ends with Britain's victory, which has seized many French colonies, and with Prussia emerging as a formidable military power. Meanwhile, its neighbor, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, is weakened by internal unrest. Prussia, Austria, and Russia take advantage of the situation and organize a first partition of its territories, allowing Prussia to establish territorial continuity. In 1789, the French Revolution breaks out. At first, the European monarchies pay little attention, but the situation changes when King Louis XVI is arrested during his attempt to flee the country. Now, fearing for their own thrones, the monarchs declare their intent to restore the French king. War breaks out, and a Prusso-Austrian army enters France, but it is defeated by the revolutionaries who, the next day, abolish the monarchy to establish a republic. The French armies then invade the Austrian Netherlands and the Dutch Republic. Weakened, Prussia signs a separate peace with France, preferring to focus on the partition of Poland that is still taking place in the east. Austria, isolated, suffers defeats in northern Italy against the army of General Napoleon Bonaparte. The latter finally secures a peace treaty, under which Austria cedes its territories west of the Rhine in exchange for much Venetian territory. In 1804, Napoleon is crowned emperor and, through a series of wars, asserts dominance over Europe. In 1806, he creates the Confederation of the Rhine under his protection, thus ending the Holy Roman Empire. In June 1812, he attempts to subdue Russia, but fails, losing most of his grand army. Prussia and Austria seize the opportunity to join the Sixth Coalition, which, in October 1813, defeats the French in a major battle at Leipzig. The coalition then takes Paris, forcing Napoleon to abdicate. In Vienna, the victors meet for nine months to redraw Europe's borders and restore monarchies. Russia, Austria and Prussia seize numerous territories. Prussia notably receives industrial and coal-rich regions west of the Rhine, while the Confederation of the Rhine is replaced by the German Confederation under Austria's presidency. But though this treaty marks the victory of monarchies, the revolutionary period has sown liberal and nationalist ideas across Europe. In 1817, German students, disappointed by the Congress of Vienna, gather at Wartburg Castle, where Martin Luther had translated the Bible 300 years earlier, to demand liberal reforms and the unification of Germany into a single nation. Austria and Prussia, fearing for their thrones, tighten their control over universities and the press. Yet nationalist movements continue to grow, and in 1848, revolutions erupt throughout Europe. Within the German Confederation, the movement leads to the establishment of a National Parliament in Frankfurt, which, after free elections, drafts a constitution aiming to create a unified German Empire. But the project lacks support from both Prussia and Austria, and the Parliament is eventually dissolved. The Austrian Empire, for its part, faces numerous uprisings, most notably the Hungarian Revolution, but the latter is finally crushed with the support of a Russian army. By clinging to its multi-ethnic empire, Austria is gradually sidelined from the German unification movement, to the benefit of Prussia, where the new king, Wilhelm I, appoints Otto von Bismarck as Minister-President. In 1864, following a succession dispute in Denmark, Prussia and Austria jointly invade the south of the country. But after their victory, they fail to agree on how to divide the conquered territories, leading to a short war between the two German powers. Austria and its allies are defeated. With the signing of the ensuing peace treaty, the German Confederation is dissolved in favor of the North German Confederation, led by Prussia. Meanwhile, the German states south of the Main, sign defensive alliances with Prussia, effectively excluding Austria from the German world. In 1868, a revolution in Spain forces Queen Isabella II into exile in France. The revolutionaries draft a new constitution and seek a successor for the throne, considering Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen a distant cousin of Wilhelm I. In France, Napoleon III firmly opposes this fearing encirclement. He sends his ambassador to meet Wilhelm I and request the withdrawal of the German prince's candidacy. The request is granted. But a few days later, the ambassador is sent again to demand further guarantees. This time, Wilhelm I ends the conversation without commitment. Bismarck seizes the opportunity and pushes a shortened and inflammatory version of their exchange, intended to provoke France. That same evening, anti-German demonstrations erupt in Paris. And a week later, France declares war on Prussia, activating Prussia's defensive alliances with the southern German states. The Germans quickly prevail, and on January 18th, 1871, even before the war ends, the German Empire is proclaimed in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles, uniting the North German Confederation and the southern states. Four months later, in the peace treaty, France cedes Alsace and the western part of Lorraine, once part of the Holy Roman Empire, and must pay heavy war indemnities. To discourage any revenge, the new German Empire strengthens its diplomatic ties with Russia and Austria-Hungary. Domestically, Bismarck seeks to curb the power of the Catholic Church and bans socialist parties. Abroad, after a Russian victory against the Ottoman Empire, most European powers oppose the peace treaty that grants Russia excessive influence in the Balkans. Bismarck offers himself as mediator and hosts a congress in Berlin to revise the treaty. In Russia, however, this breeds resentment towards Germany. Germany then signs a defensive alliance with Austria-Hungary. Three years later, Italy joins them, angered by France's colonization of Tunisia, which it had coveted. Germany then seeks to catch up in colonial expansion and, in 1884, convenes European leaders in Berlin to regulate Africa's colonization. Germany secures recognition of four colonies, then, the following year, establishes footholds in the Pacific. In 1888, Wilhelm II ascends the throne, determined to make Germany a global power in every domain. He promotes education, scientific research, and industrial development. Emerging companies soon gain international renown. Diplomatically, he strengthens ties with the Ottoman Empire. And in China, after applying pressure, he obtains a concession in a bay, where he develops the port of Qingdao. Controlling territories worldwide, he now builds a large navy to protect them. But Germany's growing power alarms other nations and prompts France and the UK to form the Entente Cordiale. They resolve their colonial disputes, the British keep Egypt, while France gains influence over Morocco. But Wilhelm II also has ambitions in Morocco, leading to early tensions. In 1907, Russia joins the Franco-British alliance, forming the Triple Entente. Four years later, following a rebellion in Morocco, Germany and France nearly go to war over control of the territory. Eventually, an agreement is reached. Morocco becomes a French protectorate, and in exchange, French Congo territories are ceded to German Cameroon. Though war is avoided this time, Europe is now divided into two blocks that are arming and preparing for a conflict. On June 28, 1914, in Sarajevo, the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, is the spark that sets off the conflict. Within days, all of Europe is at war. Germany implements its plan to defeat France quickly in the west by bypassing its defenses through the north. The goal is to then turn east against Russia, slower to mobilize, and thus avoid a two-front war. The German army violates the neutrality of Luxembourg and Belgium and begins its maneuver. But, slightly outnumbered, it fails to capture Paris and is pushed back. The front stabilizes, and trenches are dug on both sides. The lightning war becomes a drawn-out total war. Britain imposes a naval blockade on Germany, cutting off supplies. In the east, after years of fighting, Russian forces are exhausted, and following two revolutions, the Bolsheviks seize power and sign a separate peace. Germany can now focus on the western front, where it launches a major offensive. But the Allies push back and gain the upper hand. Meanwhile, in Germany, the population, worn out by war and famine, revolts and forces Kaiser Wilhelm II to abdicate. The Weimar Republic is proclaimed, and after elections, in which women can now vote, the new government is forced to accept a very harsh peace treaty. Signed at Versailles in the Hall of Mirrors, where the German Empire had once been proclaimed, it declares Germany and its allies solely responsible for the war and imposes heavy reparations. Alsace and Moselle return to France, Belgium gains territory as war compensation, and Denmark regains, via referendum, lands lost 50 years earlier. In the east, Maymel passes to Lithuania, and Poland regains independence with access to the sea, cutting Germany in two. Germany loses all of its colonies, and its army is limited to 100,000 soldiers, without heavy weapons or aircraft. The Rhineland is demilitarized and occupied by the Allies for 15 years, while the Tsar's industrial region comes under international control. Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire, Germany's allies, are dismantled entirely. In Germany, where no battles took place, the population blames its leaders for accepting a humiliating treaty. The economy is fragile, and the country struggles to pay reparations owed to the Allies. France and Belgium, whose regions have been devastated by the war, occupy the Ruhr industrial area to seize resources directly. German workers resist through strikes, supported by the government, which prints massive amounts of money to pay them. The mark plunges into hyperinflation, and by the end of the year, one dollar is worth 4.2 trillion marks. The United States proposes a plan to stabilize the German economy, revive its industry, and reschedule its debts. The French and Belgians withdraw, and U.S. investments flow in, stabilizing the economy. But in 1929, the Wall Street crash triggers a global economic crisis. The U.S. cuts off loans, and Germany's economy plunges again, with unemployment soaring. In the 1932 elections, traditional parties take the blame, which benefits the extremes. The NSDAP, the Nazi party, wins. In its leader, Adolf Hitler, becomes chancellor. A month later, the parliament, called the Reichstag, is destroyed by arson. Hitler uses the event to suspend fundamental rights and consolidate his power. His paramilitary force, the SA, or Brownshirts, three million strong, attacks communists, then targets other parties, which are ultimately banned. On the night of June 30, 1934, Hitler orders the assassination of his rivals within the SA. Then, after the German president's death, he consolidates all powers and begins implementing his policies freely. He denounces the Treaty of Versailles, reinstates compulsory military service, and restricts Jewish rights, leading to regular attacks against them. Diplomatically, he allies with fascist Italy, with whom he intervenes in the Spanish Civil War, and draws closer to Japan, rising in Asia. In 1938, he annexes Austria with the support of a large part of the local population, and then demands the Czechoslovak territories inhabited by many Germans. Western powers, seeking peace, betray their Czechoslovak ally and allow the invasion. In exchange, Hitler promises not to make further territorial demands. Yet, the following year, he pressures Poland for more control of the Dancing Corridor. This time, Britain and France announce they will defend Poland. Hitler then turns to the USSR, signing a non-aggression pact in which they secretly define spheres of influence in Eastern Europe. On September 1st, Hitler starts invading Poland. This time, France and the UK declare war on Germany. But, while German forces are concentrated in Poland, the Allies remain entrenched behind the Maginot Line, a solid system of fortifications in France. In the East, the USSR intervenes in Poland, which is defeated and divided. Germany then invades Denmark and Norway to secure its northern iron supply, before turning to the Benelux to bypass French defenses. The French and British armies intervene, but are repelled. The Germans capture Paris and obtain an armistice from Marshal Pétain. Hitler then attempts to invade Britain, but the island is firmly defended by the Royal Air Force and the Royal Navy. After subduing the Balkans, Hitler breaks his pact with the USSR and, in June 1941, launches the largest military offensive in history against it. After months of advances, German forces are halted at the gates of Moscow, just as winter sets in. Behind the front, Nazi militias massacre Jews and Bolsheviks, while across Europe, millions of Jews and other minorities die in concentration and extermination camps. In 1942, Hitler launches another offensive, this time targeting the industrial and oil-rich Caucasus region. At Stalingrad, fierce fighting ensues. The Soviets unexpectedly counter-attack outside the city and encircle the 6th German Army, which surrenders three months later. From then on, the Soviets gain the upper hand and push Germany back. At the same time, the Allies expel German forces from North Africa and then land in Italy. As defeat looms, the US, UK and USSR begin planning the post-war order. They agree to divide and occupy Germany, shifting its eastern border westward to benefit a reconstituted Poland. On June 6, 1944, the Allies land in Normandy, opening a third front. Ten months later, Berlin, where Hitler commits suicide, falls to Soviet forces. At the end of the war, at least 6 million Germans are dead, nearly half of them civilians. The country lies in ruins. One-fifth of all housing has been destroyed, leaving millions of people homeless. To these are added about 12 million Germans expelled from territories now under Polish, Czechoslovak or Soviet control. Germany is now little more than a vast refugee camp, occupied and divided into four zones. Berlin is also divided, as are Austria and its capital, Vienna. The Allies then debate the country's future. Some want to dismantle or plunder it to prevent another war, while others, especially the United States, see the USSR as the new threat and wish to rebuild Germany as a potential ally. In February 1948, the USSR, already in control of Eastern Europe, supports a communist coup in Czechoslovakia. In response, the United States and the United Kingdom persuade France to merge all of their occupation zones to form a strong Germany, capable of countering Soviet influence. The Deutschmark is introduced as the new currency for this future state. Angered at being excluded from the agreement, the USSR retaliates by imposing a blockade on West Berlin. The Allies respond by organizing a massive airlift to supply the 2 million civilians living there. For nearly a year, every 90 seconds, a plane loaded with food and supplies lands in West Berlin. On May 23, 1949, the Federal Republic of Germany or FRG is officially created, with Bonn as its provisional capital. On October 7, the USSR responds by creating the German Democratic Republic or GDR. Germany is thus divided by what is called the Iron Curtain. In the West, the United States bets on a rapid economic recovery through the Marshall Plan. Of the $13 billion in grants and loans, roughly one-tenth is allocated to West Germany. France, for its part, proposes a rapprochement with the FRG and the pooling of their coal and steel production. Italy and the Benelux countries join them to create the ECSC, the forerunner of the European Union. Meanwhile, in Asia, Korea, also divided since World War II, is torn apart between communists in the North and UN-backed forces in the South. The United States, deeply involved there, fears a similar scenario as between the two Germanys. Washington therefore pressures its allies to authorize the rearmament of West Germany and its integration into NATO. In 1955, the country joins the organization, officially ending the Allied occupation and placing the FRG under the military protection of other members. Just days later, the USSR retaliates by creating its own military alliance, the Warsaw Pact, to which East Germany is tied. In 1957, the ECSC members sign the Treaties of Rome, establishing the European Economic Community and Euratom, notably aimed at creating a common market. West Germany, which only ten years earlier was a shattered land, is now the world's second largest economic power behind the United States. In East Germany, however, economic conditions are harsher, pushing many Germans to flee to the west via West Berlin. To stop this exodus, during the night of August 12-13, 1961, a wall is built, dividing the city in two. In 1969, the new chancellor, Willy Brandt, begins a policy of rapprochement with Eastern Europe. He becomes the first West German leader to visit Poland, where he apologizes for Germany's wartime crimes and officially recognizes the new border between the two countries. Two years later, he normalizes relations with East Germany. Finally, in 1976, the Federal Republic participates in the first G7 summit, bringing together the world's major industrialized democracies. In 1985, in the USSR, Mikhail Gorbachev comes to power, inheriting a nation weakened economically and whose army is bogged down in Afghanistan. The situation worsens the following year with the Chernobyl nuclear disaster. He then launches a series of economic and political reforms. On the international stage, he adopts a policy of détente, and the Red Army will no longer intervene in Eastern Europe. He meets with West German Chancellor Helmut Kohl, and during their talks, the question of possible German reunification is raised. In 1989, Hungary and then Czechoslovakia open their borders with the West, allowing East Germans new routes to reach the FRG. At the same time in East Germany's major cities, every Monday, mass demonstrations are organized, demanding reforms and greater freedom. Weekend. Leader Erich Honecker is forced to resign. A few days later, on November 9th, 1989, the Berlin Wall falls, and a massive celebration fills the city. The border between the two Germanys opens, and in the following months, millions of East Germans go to the West. Helmut Kohl then begins negotiations to formalize German reunification. After the signing of a treaty in Berlin between the two German states, a meeting is held in Moscow with the four former victors of the Second World War to confirm the process. German reunification is officially completed on October 3rd, 1990.