From Suleiman To Ataturk: The History Of The Ottoman Empire

There are several theories concerning the establishment of the Ottoman Empire. The first mentions date back to the 20th year of the 13th century and are related to the Suleyman Shah. However, most historians believe that the Ottoman Empire was founded by his grandson Osman I in the late 13th century when he began to rule a small Turkic tribe in the Anatolia region. This state arose on the territory of the Byzantine Empire. The tribe began to manifest Islam and Osman I established the main governing bodies and the klinok, a state symbol of power that would last for more than 600 years and would accompany each successive Ottoman ruler. The next century and a half were incredibly important for the Ottomans. Territories gradually grew. In the middle of the 10th, the offspring of Osman, Orhan Gazi I, began a ten-year siege of Bursa and after the death of Osman, he took the place of the ruler. Orhan captured the city of Bursa, which became the first Ottoman capital and the first significant cultural center, and reformed the army. In addition to cavalry, the infantry corps were established. Ten years later, the Ottomans had the first fleet of small vessels to gain control of the Bosporus and Dardanelles. Orhan expanded his influence. Over time, the Ottomans took advantage of the civil war in Byzantium between the descendants of the throne, allowing expansion in the south. The next ruler, the son of Orhan, Murad I, who was called the Devotee of God, decently continued the work of his father and grandfather. During his reign, the active expansion in the Balkans was established. Murad has put an end to the expansion of Serbia. In the 70s of the 14th century, there was a rebellion. The son of Murad conspired with the heir of the Byzantine throne and removed the current ruler of Byzantium, John V. Murad suppressed that rebellion, and both parents executed their sons. In the 80s of the 14th century, the conquests resumed, and before his death, Murad managed to inflict a crushing defeat on the Serbs on the Kosovo field. During Murad's reign, the first regiments of Janissaries appeared, which played a significant role in the Battle of Kosovo. Janissaries were recruited from among the captured prisoners of war. The first Janissaries were armed with battle hammers, axes, and swords. Subsequently, muskets and cannons appeared. The formation existed for five centuries. Murad's successors only increased the territory and influence of the Ottoman Empire. Mehmed II realized the geopolitical importance of Constantinople and developed a plan of capture and conquest. The ruler decided to block the traffic through the Bosphorus and Dardanelles in advance with the two fortresses. A colossal army of 100,000 began a cannon barrage and captured Constantinople in 53 days, despite the desperate efforts of the defenders of the city. Thus, in the 50s of the 15th century, the existence of the once powerful Byzantium Empire completely ceased. The last ruler of Byzantium, Constantine XI, was killed at his will in the battle. After this, the activity of the Ottoman fleet grew many times. Mehmed II began mass invasions and tried to eliminate the rulers of Albania and Bosnia. The desire of the Ottomans to expand their influence in the Black Sea led to the occupation of their own vassal, the Crimean Khanate. After the capture of the Crimean Khanate, the new ruler Bayezid II continued to conduct wars in both Europe and the Middle East. Despite this, his reign was marked by the prosperity of the empire and its stability. However, Bayezid's son, Selim I, was dissatisfied with his father's decision about the heir and left the Balkans for Istanbul. The father defeated his son in the first battle and Selim fled to the Crimea. However, then the other brothers with the Janissaries intervened. Moreover, Bayezid was betrayed by his own guard. The father had no choice but to leave the throne to his son. The return of Selim I made a splash, but he ordered the execution of all his male relatives who could claim the throne, and then ordered the poisoning of his father, for which he received his nickname Grimm. Soon after the beginning of his reign, Selim conquered Egypt and captured part of the Persian lands. On the other hand, the war with Hungary did not yield results, so the Ottomans made peace with Hungary. Selim I became the one who gave the best future ruler to his state. At the beginning of the 20s of the 16th century, Suleiman the Magnificent ascended the throne. During his reign, the Ottoman Empire experienced the development of culture, architecture, and art. The legendary Sehzad Mosque in Istanbul was built. The development of trade and agriculture was becoming enormous. The first military academy opened in Constantinople. By order of Suleiman, the production of cannons was increased many times. The army, consisting of various kinds of troops, grew more than one and a half times. At the beginning of his reign, Suleiman again made war against an implacable enemy, Hungary, and after a few years, he inflicted a crushing defeat. Louis II died as a result of the Ottoman victory, and Hungary declared itself an Ottoman vassal. Three years later, armed conflict with Austria began. Although Suleiman suffered serious losses and was unable to capture Vienna, Austria conceded its defeat and agreed to pay tribute in gold. After several more armed conflicts, the Habsburgs were forced to sign peace. Suleiman secured the borders in Europe and began fighting his enemies in Asia. In the 30s, there was a campaign to Persia, which ended successfully with the expansion of the empire. During the war against Persia, Suleiman conquered parts of the country, including the city of Baghdad. At the end of Suleiman's reign, the Ottoman Empire had 15 million inhabitants on three continents. Suleiman II, unlike his father, focused on domestic politics. He allowed the purchase and sale of wine to non-Muslims and reformed the legal and tax systems as well as the army, which from that time had improved salaries and conditions of service. Standards of justice for Muslims and non-Muslims have emerged, taking into account the rights and obligations of each social group in the empire. There were breakthroughs in the field of health and hygiene, methods of treatment of epidemics were actively supported. In foreign policy, Suleiman still managed to distinguish himself by concluding a truce with the Habsburgs for 25 years. However, on land, the empire began to lose influence under the pressure of the rising power of the Moscow Empire and Austria. It is still unknown how Suleiman II died. It is known for sure that he died outside the house. According to one version, he was poisoned. Other sources say that he died of illness. The period of stagnation of the Ottoman Empire began with Selim and under subsequent rulers, the situation only worsened. The Ottomans failed to conquer Habsburg, Austria and the Holy Roman Empire in Europe during the long Turkish War. The first phase was successful, but neither side was able to gain a significant advantage further. Everything resulted in years of battles without an actual winner. In the East, the Ottoman Empire ceded to the Persians in the Ottoman-Persian War for the Caucasus. In the early 17th century, the Persians inflicted the first significant defeat on the Ottomans. The following year, the Ottomans succeeded in taking the initiative, but, as in Europe, the war dragged on and continued with varying success for both sides. However, after 15 years of war, the Ottoman Empire was ambushed, losing 15,000 soldiers, and was forced to sign a truce with Persia. For almost a century, the Ottoman Empire suffered from military and palace mutinies. The situation improved only towards the middle of the century. In the 40s, seven-year-old Mehmed IV ascended the throne under his mother's regency. Ottoman ministers-viziers took over the administration of the country. The new government was able to win local wars. In particular, the Ottoman Empire conquered the island of Crete in the battles with the Spanish. In the war against the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Ottoman Empire was able to capture the western areas of modern Ukraine. Habsburgs were very worried about such a powerful rival. Therefore, on the initiative of the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire, the Holy League was created, which included Austria, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Moscow Empire, and a number of other states. The Holy League declared a real war against the Ottomans. In 10 years, the Ottoman Empire has lost significant lands in Europe. After the failure of the last war, the Empire faced difficulties. The 18th century became the official beginning of the decline of the Ottoman Empire. The first significant conflict of this century was the Great Northern War. It was caused by the increasing power of Sweden. The Swedish army became a model for the world, and the new young monarch had to become an easy target for the anti-Swedish coalition, which included the Moscow Empire, Prussia, and the Union of Denmark and Norway. The Swedes were supported by the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Ottoman Empire. The war also involved other European countries in different years, and every state had its own motives. Initially, the skillful Swedish monarch had achieved certain victories, but Sweden and the Ottoman Empire lost their lands after 20 years of confrontation. This war became more bloody in the 18th century and showed that the technological advantage of one state leads to the decline of the other. The total losses of the parties amounted to 350,000 soldiers. Most of the losses were in the Moscow Empire and Sweden, 150,000 and 100,000 respectively. Subsequent wars made matters even more difficult and ended in land losses. The desire to reclaim the land led to attempts to reform the army and the laws of the Empire, which were given the cold shoulder by conservative sectors of the population and janissaries. The infighting and resistance by the janissaries not only impeded progress but also led to coups. The end of the janissaries in the first half of the 19th century was put by Sultan Mahmud II. Besides the army, he also reformed the banking system and promoted industrialization. However, the Crimean War for domination in the Balkans by the Russian Empire against the Ottoman and French Empires, as well as the British Empire, had dampened the Ottoman economy. The victory in the war did not give the desired result but hit hard on the finances. As a result of the three-year war, the Ottoman Empire lost about 45,000 soldiers. Foreign debt also increased significantly. Moreover, as a result of the war, the Ottoman Empire received about a million refugees, including Crimean Tatars, which complicated the inter-ethnic situation in the Empire. The next Turkish-Russian war took place in the late 70s. This time, its long-standing rival defeated the Ottoman Empire. As a result, Montenegro, Serbia, Bulgaria, and Romania gained independence. In addition, a recent Ottoman ally, the British Empire, occupied Cyprus and, a few years later, Egypt. The 20th century also met the Ottoman Empire with severe trials. Initially, an internal political movement of young Turks removed the emperor from the actual administration of the country. On the eve of the First World War, Italy occupied Libya. Moreover, other island territories, including Crete, were lost. The Empire managed to capture part of the territory of Bulgaria, but the greatest test was ahead. The weakened Ottoman Empire wished to regain its power. Therefore, it decided to join Germany. The Ottoman Empire conducted wars against Britain for the Suez Canal. Also, it fought in the Middle East and with the Russian Empire. However, despite the beginning of a revolution in the Russian Empire, the U.S. entry into the war put an end to it. Germany and its allies lost. As a result, the territory of the Ottoman Empire has shrunk to the size of modern Turkey. Izmir, one of the largest cities, was to be taken over by Greece. However, the radical Turkish army began an independence war. Turkish nationalists, led by Ataturk, refused to accept the peace treaty. The military offensive forced the Greeks to This was the last Ottoman military confrontation. In October 1923, the Republic of Turkey, headed by Ataturk, was proclaimed. It still exists and has its weight in the Middle East and in the world. The Ottoman Empire, which existed during the reign of Suleyman the Magnificent, remained in the history of mankind forever.