Archaic Greece

Following the Late Bronze Age collapse around 1200 BCE, the Greek world was thrown into the Dark Ages. Mycenaean civilization, thriving until the end of the Bronze Age was destroyed, leaving behind small disjointed communities in its wake. The population across Greece sharply declined, with most major centers experiencing a bout of destruction. Around 1050, the Greeks began a slow recovery. They expanded their influence across the Aegean and rejoined the Mediterranean trade networks. Increased contact with the Phoenician traders reintroduced the Greeks to the art of writing and by the 9th century the Greek alphabet was born. With his epic poems, The Iliad and The Odyssey, Homer ushered in the Archaic Age of Greece. During this period, most of the Greek population were subsistence farmers working their own fields. With the population still on the low end, most families had access to a plot of land. However, over time, the chieftains and other powerful men slowly took over large areas they could use for animal grazing. This further widened the inequality between small farmers and the wealthy landowners, who now enjoyed a surplus of animal produce. The poor were pushed out to the outskirts, forced to work low-quality land, or even worse, sell their labor to the rich. These landless laborers endured a lower standing than even the slaves, who could at least count on the Starting in the middle of the 8th century BC, a period known as the 8th century renaissance began. The Greek population, which was more or less stagnant through the dark ages, suddenly exploded. This was followed by rapid developments in art, culture, economy and political relationships. It was at this time that the familiar picture of ancient Greece emerged. With the sudden population rise came the ever-increasing need for food. Large pastoral lands were transformed into new high-quality farmlands. This was combined with the new advancements in farming technology, and soon the Greeks could produce an abundance of food. However, most of this food was controlled by the wealthy landowners. Within just a few generations, the Dark Age chieftains transformed themselves into large-scale farmers. The gap between the rich and the poor expanded significantly. Small family farmers had to divide their limited land among their sons, while the rich continued expanding their holdings. This disparity between the classes caused growing unrest across the Greek world. From these changes, a new political unit emerged throughout the Greek world. In the 8th century BC, disconnected Greek communities united into autonomous city-states known as poleis in Greek. The poleis would remain the main political unit in Greece until the Roman conquests, some 600 years later. But what exactly is a poleis? Our best definition of the poleis comes from Aristotle and his work Politics, written in the 4th century BC. The term poleis was used to describe three different but connected entities. Firstly, the crucial element that distinguishes the poleis from the demos is the urban center that functions as the seat of the political institutions. Communities without an urban center were rarely, if ever, considered a poleis. The second important piece of the puzzle was all the territory, including the urban center and the surrounding farmlands, villages, and lesser towns. Lastly, and perhaps most importantly, poleis refers to the political community of people living on the surrounding land and within the urban center. Both the townsfolk and the villagers were seen as equal citizens of the poleis. From this connection to both the urban center and the community arises the modern translation of the word poleis – the city-state. Although mentioning the poleis in his works, Homer puts a greater emphasis on the demos. But if we look to the later works, like the Histories by Herodotus, written in the 5th century, we can see that by his time, the poleis was the central political unit in Greece. From this we surmise that the poleis evolved sometime in the early archaic period. From those early days until the death of Alexander the Great, we know of 1035 different city-states by name. The two essential political units necessary for the development of the poleis, namely the Assembly of Fighting Age Men and the Council of Elders, were well established during the Dark Ages. The only remaining step was to formally unite these communities into a cohesive entity. This was achieved through a process known as cynicism, in which every town, village, and hamlet of Fodemos accepted a single political center. The people gave up their local autonomy, freedoms, and even their shared identities in exchange for the new identity of the poleis, along with all the accompanying benefits of unification. Consequently, all inhabitants of Attica, for example, referred to themselves as Athenians, even if they lived far away from Athens itself. For most city-states that encompass one city and the surrounding farmlands, cynicism was a straightforward process. It was not hard for local farmers to assume the identity of a nearby city with which they already had frequent contact. On the other hand, for larger demos, like Athens, this was a prolonged and poorly understood process. Archaeological evidence indicates that shared religious cults were used to promote unity within the region. Some large cities, such as Argos, never managed to unite the whole region under a single poleis, and a number of small independent city-states continued thriving in the Argolid. On the other hand, large parts of Greece never underwent the process of cynicism, and they never developed into city-states, instead opting for a different form of political organization. The ethnos, as it was known, consisted of the people and their territory, but lacked a capital city or a centralized government. While not formally united, these communities still felt a sense of belonging to a shared demos. They were often united through religious cults and acted together when the need arose. Aristotle describes the ideal poleis as a community small enough for its people to know the leaders, but large enough to encourage labor specialization in order to achieve self-sufficiency. He also tells us that a poleis should be self-governing and independent. However, politics is a work of political theory and not history. In reality, true self-sufficiency was rarely achievable, and many smaller city-states relied on their larger neighbors for protection. Political and economic cooperation between city-states was common, especially in times of war or during the construction and maintenance of monumental temples. The former Basileus, the chieftains from the Dark Ages, united into the land-owning aristocracy of the poleis. Using their combined power, they introduced several changes to the First, the office of the paramount Basileus was abolished or greatly reduced in importance. Second, the governing functions of the Basileus were divided among several officials. Finally, the importance of the assembly of the people was greatly diminished, while that of the council of elders was increased. As the borders of the poleis became more defined, small raiding parties of ages past transformed into border wars of conquest. This created a need for stronger unity within the poleis and therefore a need for stronger centralized government that could respond to these threats. This process of defining the poleis and its leadership structures took no more than two or three generations in most places. The early city-states were almost universally governed as oligarchies, meaning ruled by the few. Each individual poleis created a different set of magistracies needed for their specific situation. In some cases, the Basileus survived, while in others, the meaning of the title was changed or abolished completely. While smaller states could get by with only a few officials, others, like Athens, needed dozens or even hundreds to run all aspects of the poleis. The highest of these magistrates would, upon leaving office, get a seat on the council of elders, known as the Vouli. First developed during the Dark Ages, the Vouli would take up its final form during the Archaic period. The council held the real power in the poleis. It assumed the task of making policies and drafting laws. However, this hold on power was short-lived and the people would soon regain the upper hand. With the increasing power of the rich aristocracy, tensions between the classes were on the rise. Facing limited options at home, some desperate Greeks turned to desperate measures. With the blessing and limited aid from their home poleis, a group of colonists renounced their citizenship and ventured out in search of new lands. The host city would choose a leader of the expedition, known as the Oikist, who was the sole individual responsible for the success of the new colony. He was tasked with leading the colonists to their new home, laying out the fences, setting up sanctuaries, and divvying up the land. Names of these leaders often survived in founding myths, although it is often the case that these myths were twisted to suit a particular narrative or downright fabricated in some cases. From these myths and the limited archaeological record available to us, we can try to reconstruct the early history of Greek colonization. At the start of the 8th century, the Euboean traders, following the stories of great riches waiting in the West, founded their first colony on Ischia, a small island off the coast of Campania. Pythecusae, as they called it, proved successful, and another settlement in Italy, Cumae, followed around the middle of the century. In 734 BC, the colonization of Sicily began with settlements at Naxos and a year later, Syracuse. Founded by Corinthians, Syracuse would become a regional power, conquering large parts of the island. Like many other colonies, Syracuse founded many new colonies of its own. Years later, it would play a crucial part in a power struggle between Rome and Carthage. In 706, the Spartans founded their only colony, Taras, better known by its Latin name, Tarentum. Numerous other colonies were established on the Italian mainland, Sicily, and the Adriatic Sea. But the Greeks were not bound to the West. In the late 7th century, they founded Cyrene in Libya and now Cratis on the Nile. Others went even further west towards Gaul and Spain. Phocaea founded Massalia at the mouth of the river Rhone around 600 BC. Massalia would quickly exploit its great position to dominate the region, founding a series of trading posts in Spain. The Mediterranean was however not free from danger. Founded by Phoenician traders in the late 9th century, Carthage soon grew into a chief regional power. Having failed to prevent the colonization of Massalia, tensions between the Greeks and the Carthaginians remained high. While the Carthaginians were busy defending their settlements, Greek pirates preyed upon shipping lanes between Corsica and Etruria. Around 540, the combined Punic and Etruscan fleets engaged the pirates. Although outnumbered 2 to 1, the Greeks managed to push back the allied fleet. The Greeks lost most of their ships in this engagement and realizing they couldn't withstand another attack, they chose to evacuate Corsica. The Carthaginians, although unable to defeat Massalia, managed to close the pillars of Herakles and shut the Greeks within the Mediterranean. These high tensions finally boiled over in a series of Sicilian wars, fought over the control of the island between the Greeks and the Carthaginians. These conflicts would only be stopped with the eventual Roman involvement in the region. Recognizing the dangers lying in the west, the Greeks abandoned their pursuits in the western Mediterranean and turned their gaze northeast, thus ending the first phase of Greek colonization. In the myth of the Golden Fleece, Jason and the Argonauts boarded their ship Argo and set sail from Iolcus towards the Black Sea in search of a golden-wooled ram. Iolcus was the northernmost Mycenaean settlement, and it is possible that this myth arose from stories of ancient sailors who dared to venture across the Black Sea in search of gold. Centuries later, these ancient seafarers would be followed by Greek colonists in the second phase of colonization. Around the start of the 7th century, the Greeks began moving north, establishing colonies in Palkidike, Thrace and the Hellespont. The small city-state of Megara founded Chalcedon and Byzantium on opposite sides of the Bosporus, guarding the entrance to the Black Sea. With this, a sort of gold rush began, and colonists were sent from all parts of the Greek world. Without strong opposition in the region, the colonization of the Black Sea continued well into the classical period. Eventually, the shores of the Black Sea were almost entirely covered by Greek city-states. Miletus proved to be the main player in the Although these numbers were most likely inflated, the impact the Ionians had on the region was certainly not. On the other hand, some Greeks, unwilling to leave their homes for good, decided to forge their fate on the high seas. Although the Greeks participated in Mediterranean trade throughout the Dark Ages, they suddenly expanded their presence, becoming one of the major players in the region. They exported fine pottery and metalwork, along with woolen goods By the 7th century, Greeks began producing large quantities of olive oil and wine, intended for external trade. Later, the famous Greek white marble and large quantities of silver found in Attica would be added to the mix. In return, merchants brought back valuable metals such as gold, copper, tin, and iron, as well as rare materials like ivory, amber, and dice. Trade within Greece was likewise thriving. Rugged terrain made overland routes difficult or even impossible in some cases, but most of the population had relatively easy access to the sea. Fresh produce, unfeasible for long voyages, was frequently traded at home. With this flurry of new economic activity, a need arose for a large number of laborers. The landless masses could now get by working as farmers, sailors, shipbuilders, or carpenters. However, the true winners were again the elites who amassed even larger quantities of wealth. With the increase in wealth, a need for luxury items developed. Skilled craftsmen could now make a decent living producing high quality goods for the emerging upper classes. As the Greeks spread across the Mediterranean, they increasingly came into contact with foreigners. These people spoke different languages, they worshipped different gods, and observed different customs. Differences between poleis, which seemed insurmountable only a generation or two ago, were now put in perspective. The Greeks realized they were more closely related to other Greeks than they were to these barbarians. Far away from their ancestral homes, new generations of Greek colonists proudly proclaimed their Greekness. They built monumental temples, patronized religious institutions, and attended distant festivals. These shared religious events and practices gave rise to the idea of unity among all Greeks. It was this notion, known as Panhellenism, that would compel the Greeks to unite under a single banner when facing outside threats. The 8th century saw the rise of numerous panhellenic sanctuaries and festivals that welcomed worshippers from across the Greek world. The most famous of these were the Oracle of Apollo at Delphi and the Olympic Games. The shrine in Delphi dates back to the Mycenaean period, but the famous Oracle would not appear until the 8th century BC. The high priestess of Apollo opened the gates of the temple to both Greeks and non-Greeks alike. The visitors could, in exchange for a hefty fee, consult Apollo on all sorts of political or personal issues. His divine message was transmitted through the priestess, who underwent a self-induced trance. A series of interpreters would then relay the message to the visitor. These messages were often ambiguous. As the Oracle of Apollo grew in importance, it attracted increasing numbers of Greek and foreign leaders, becoming a repository of political conditions across the Mediterranean. The high priestess of Apollo, known as Pythia, was one of the most powerful women in the ancient world. During the Dark Ages, the Greeks commonly partook in funeral games, a series of athletic competitions to honor the fallen warriors. From this tradition, the practice of holding games at religious festivals arose. In contrast to the haphazard nature of funeral games, these festival games were held regularly on a set schedule. The most famous games in ancient Greece were of course the Olympic games. They were held every four years at the Sanctuary of Zeus in Olympia, in the western Peloponnese. According to one legend, the Olympic games were first established by the mythical hero Heracles after he had completed his twelve labors. But the games were soon abandoned and later revived in 776 BC. Traditionally, the inaugural Olympic games were used as the start of the Greek calendar. All later events were therefore dated in accordance with the games. For example, the famous Battle of Marathon, fought in 490 BCE, was traditionally dated to the third year of the 72nd Olympiad. Initially, the Olympic games were no more than a local event among nearby city-states. By the end of the century, dedications from Sparta, Athens, Corinth, and Argos could be found in the sanctuary. By the 6th century, the Olympic games had attracted athletes and spectators from all corners of the Greek world. With the increasing importance of the games, city-states began dedicating lavish gifts to flaunt their wealth. A sacred truce between the poleis was instituted around the time of the Olympics. All visitors to and from Olympia were guaranteed a safe passage. As time went on, new events were added to the games. The most prestigious event of the Olympics was a short sprint known as the state, a length of about 200 meters. The names of all the winners were inscribed to be preserved in posterity. These winners would be celebrated as national heroes upon returning to their home poleis. Women were barred from attending the Olympics, but a separate event in nearby Elis was held for maidens in honor of Hera. As the popularity of the Olympic games slowly increased, other sanctuaries instituted games of their own. The Pythian games for Apollo at Delphi were established in 582 BC, the Isthmian games for Poseidon near Corinth in 581, and the Nemean games for Zeus at Argos in 573. These four major events would cycle through a four-year period, with each event held in a different year. They formed the most prestigious athletic circuit of the ancient world. Counterintuitively, these major events had only nominal prizes such as olive leaves or laurels. Other smaller events had to offer large prize pools to attract the best athletes. A professional athlete could make a decent living traveling to these smaller games. These pan-Hellenic institutions served as cultural melting pots for Greeks from across the Mediterranean. They would participate in common rituals and share stories among themselves, thus further promoting the idea of Greek unity. With mounting pressures from the East, these ideas would gain prominence, but the Greeks would ultimately remain divided. The Oracle of Apollo, the Olympic games, and other pan-Hellenic institutions continued thriving until 393 CE when Emperor Theodosius banned participation in pagan cults. In contrast to these pan-Hellenic institutions, the 8th century also saw the rise of numerous localized cultic sites. Some of these sites date back to the Mycenaean period, with evidence of continuous use throughout the Dark Ages. Others were revived during the early Archaic period, and yet others were newly established. These sites emerged as places of worship for patron deities of Apollos or a group of Poleis. The famous Greek monumental temples began appearing across the Mediterranean, with Poleis trying to one-up each other with the grandeur of their projects. The practice of burying offerings with the dead was abandoned, and they were instead dedicated at the temples as offerings to the gods. Foreigners were often barred from entering these sacred grounds. The largest monumental temple in mainland Greece would be built in Athens, dedicated to, of course, Zeus. Starting construction in the 6th century BCE, during the era of the tyrants, it would not be completed until the rule of Emperor Hadrian in the 2nd century CE. The temple was badly damaged in the sack of Athens in the 3rd century, and was later destroyed by an earthquake in the 5th century. Today, only 16 of the original 104 giant columns remain standing. The Temple of Olympian Zeus is overshadowed by the far more famous Temple of Artemis in Ephesus. Built and destroyed three separate times, the temple is listed as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Originally built during the Bronze Age, it was destroyed in the 7th century by a flood. The temple was rebuilt around 550, but was again destroyed by a fire in 356. Alexander the Great famously offered to rebuild the temple when passing through Anatolia, but he was refused. The third and final phase of the temple began construction in 323 BC. It would stand as the grandest Greek monumental temple for some 600 years, until it was first damaged by an earthquake, and later burned by invading Goths. These temples were often decorated with a large statue depicting the celebrated deity. The most famous of these was the colossal, golden ivory statue of Zeus at Olympia. Built in 435 BC, the statue is also listed as one of the Seven World Wonders. It was sadly destroyed before the end of the 6th century CE. With the changing political climate at the start of the archaic period came new advancements in technology. The Dark Ages saw bands of heteroi fighting in loose formations. The key to success in these battles was the mobility and skill of individual members. The battles would often come down to a series of one-on-one duels between opposing forces. By 650 BC, at the latest, these bands of heteroi had been replaced by a tightly packed hoplite phalanx. A hoplite was a heavily armored infantry unit. The full armor of a hoplite consisted of The hoplite would carry a thick thrusting spear in one hand, and most importantly, a large wooden shield covered with a layer of bronze in the other. When the spears inevitably shattered, the hoplites would turn to their short swords. According to the Greek historian Diodorus of Sicily, writing in the 5th century BC, the hoplites got their name from their large shield known as the hoplon. This, however, is most likely a mistake. The word hoplon was used to denote all kinds of tools, and some scholars believe that hoplite simply means armed. The other commonly cited name is aspis, but that is simply a Greek word for any kind of shield. The most commonly used name for the specific hoplite shield was the Argive shield, as it first originated in Argos. Here we come to the chicken and egg problem concerning the phalanx and the Argive shield. What came first, the tightly packed phalanx or a large circular shield that could sufficiently protect the men in the phalanx. Most scholars tend to agree that the bands of heteroi were gradually packed into more dense formations. This greatly reduced the mobility of the men, and their small shields left their right sides completely exposed. It was then that the Argives thought of a simple solution, where each man could protect his neighbor. The Argive shield was greatly successful, and it quickly spread across the Greek world. As previously mentioned, the hoplites were densely packed into a phalanx. With their large shield, they would cover the left side of their body, while their right was covered by the next man in line. The men on the far right were not protected, and as a result, the whole phalanx would usually swerve to the right. The phalanx was at least 8 ranks deep, but on some occasions, it could go as many as 50. The men in the back ranks served two purposes, preventing the first line from fleeing, and using their combined weights to push the front line forward. If the men in the first line broke, the rest of the phalanx was soon to follow. Therefore, the best and bravest warriors were placed in the front. The phalanx was a slow-moving unit with low mobility. If an enemy force managed to outflank it, the phalanx had no chance of defending from the sides or the rear. Fortunately, the mountainous terrain of Greece offered little opportunity for flanking maneuvers, and the opposing forces would usually meet on open ground. A hard-fought struggle would ensue, with both sides exerting all their weight, hoping to make a breakthrough. In this phase, losses remained relatively low. Eventually, one side would finally break, and an all-out retreat would begin. Most of the losses were inflicted during this flight, with men cut down while they struggled to get away. The cumbersome shields that once offered great protection became a heavy liability. The hoplites would often throw them aside, hoping to outrun their heavily armored pursuers. According to Plutarch, Spartan mothers would send their sons off to war, saying, Return carrying your shield, or upon it. Although likely a dramatization invented by the Greek historian, it clearly demonstrates the value of the shield to the hoplite and to the phalanx as a whole. Hoplites were required to provide their own equipment. The high costs meant that poor citizens were disqualified, only able to serve as skirmishers or light troops. The phalanx therefore consisted of fairly well-off landowners and craftsmen, fighting alongside aristocrats to protect the common good. In the phalanx, every man, from the poorest farmer able to equip himself to the richest aristocrat, was equally important. With these masses of citizen-soldiers fighting shoulder to shoulder, the idea of aristocratic excellence used by the ruling class as a pretense for staying in power was slowly eroding away. This emerging hoplite class would play a crucial role in shaping the political direction of the polis. Most well-off farmers tended to be conservative, supporting the ruling oligarchy. However, in some rare cases when the middle class put their weight behind the poorest citizens, there was complete legal and political equality between the classes. The rapid swings between oligarchy and democracy seen during the archaic and classical periods can thus be explained by the shifting attitudes of the hoplite class. From the start of the 7th to the end of the 5th century BC, many powerful men would use these shifting attitudes of the hoplites to seize power. These men were called tyrants, a word borrowed from Asia Minor, used to denote men who seized power by a coup and ruled illegally. Most Greek city-states experienced a period of tyranny, often lasting no more than a generation or two. The clans of ruling aristocrats frequently fought amongst themselves for control of the polis. These disputes would lead to violence and instability within the city. The would-be tyrant would exploit this instability to seize control, often with the help of a mercenary force. There is no recorded instance of the hoplites installing a tyrant of their own, however, no man was able to take control of the polis The word tyrant did not carry negative connotations like in our time. Tyrants were often charismatic men with significant achievements, brought stability, prosperity, and safety to the polis. Many great public works, such as roads, canals, and monumental temples, were constructed under their patronage. Tyrants often attacked the wealthy elites, limiting their powers and privileges. Under this new leadership, most city-states flourished, reaching new heights. As they approached the end of their lives, tyrants would try to set up dynasties, positioning their sons as heirs to their empires. However, sons were rarely as successful as their fathers and often had to resort to more tyrannical measures to keep power. This would inevitably lead to resentment from the hoplite class, and it was only a matter of time before the tyrants were overthrown and the power reverted back to the people. Although short-lived, the Archaic Age tyrannies left a profound impact on the political stage. The hoplite class, realizing the oligarchs were powerless without their support, were now hesitant to restore them to the previous positions of power. It is therefore possible that the tyrants played a key role in the development of democracy. Political conditions were not the only thing evolving in the early Archaic Age. The arts and culture experienced a renaissance of their own. With new advancements in pottery making, the geometric style present through the Dark Ages advanced into the Late Phase, featuring motifs of people and animals. Slowly, with the growing influence from the Near East, the Greeks entered into the new Orientalizing period. The geometric patterns gave way to floral and animal motifs, with more sophisticated depictions of humans. Mythical and historical scenes became a more common occurrence on the pottery during this era. This style would not be bound to the Greek mainland. Instead, it would follow the Phoenician and Greek traders spreading to Etruria, early Rome, and other parts of the Mediterranean. With the rise of the polis, differences in style between city-states became more pronounced. Under the leadership of the tyrant Cypselus, Corinth emerged as the predominant commercial center in Greece. The Corinthians exported large quantities of finely painted pottery, specializing in a small perfume flask filled with scented olive oil. These flasks can be found across the Mediterranean. Corinthians invented a new style of pottery painting called black figure. This style allowed them to show human figures in great detail. By 550 BC, Athenian potters could create larger and more elaborate vases, pushing the Corinthians from the export market. By 530, Athenians developed the new red figure style, enabling even more detailed paintings. Red figure would remain in use until the late 3rd century CE. Inspired by the Egyptians, Greek artists began creating large monumental statues in the mid-7th century. They adopted the distinct Egyptian style, with figures facing forward, arms at their sides, and one foot stepping forward. These stiff forms would slowly loosen up, evolving into the famous Greek statues of the classical period. The sculptures were first made out of marble. However, starting in the 5th century, bronze would become the favored material for freestanding statues. Although some poets of the archaic period continued composing epic poems, with the epic cycle being the main example, most poets switched to the more personal lyric poetry. These songs, often accompanied by a string instrument, the lyre, were performed at social gatherings and festivals. Some prolific poets, such as Archilochus of Paros, gained Pan-Hellenic fame with their work spreading across the Mediterranean. Archilochus and his contemporaries frequently used a humorous and ironic style set in direct opposition to the epic works of old. These poems were often performed on stages in front of a large audience. As they grew in popularity, the Greeks started building dedicated open-air theatres around 700 BC. Theatre culture thrived in Athens especially, with many religious festivals incorporating theatrical performances and competitions. The largest of these was Dionysia, an annual festival in honor of the god of wine, Dionysus. Characters were slowly added to these performances, creating a new literary style known as drama. Three dramatic genres emerged – tragedy, comedy, and satyr plays. A poet from Attica, Thespis, is credited as the inventor of tragedy. According to Aristotle, Thespis was the first actor to appear on stage as a character. He would go on to win the inaugural tragedy competition at Dionysia in 534. We know of other playwrights of this first generation, such as Corillus, Pretinus, and Phrynicus. Phrynicus wrote a play titled The Fall of Miletus, recounting the sack of that city by the Persians. Seeing the people of Miletus as kin, the Athenians fined Phrynicus a thousand drachma for bringing to mind his great calamity and also banned the future productions of the play. Sadly, none of the works from the 6th century survived. With the awakening of the Greek world in the early archaic period came a new pursuit of knowledge and understanding. A new discipline, known as philosophy, emerged in Miletus and gradually spread across the Mediterranean. Early Greek philosophers, known as the pre-Socratics, were mainly interested in cosmology and natural phenomena. They developed the fields of science, mathematics, geometry, astronomy, and medicine. As previously mentioned, Miletus was the center of the first western school of philosophy. Starting in the 6th century, the three great Miletians, Thales, Anaximander, and Anaximenes, laid the foundations for the development of science and rational thought. They proposed competing theories on the origin of the universe. The first of the three, Thales, believed water was the origin of all matter. He was also able to predict a solar eclipse, proving that it wasn't caused by the whims of the gods above. His contemporary, Anaximander, believed that Epiron, an undefined infinity, was the origin of all matter, while Anaximenes believed it was the air. Although completely mistaken in their assumptions, these men reached their conclusions through abstract reasoning rather than religious or mythological means, and are thus credited as the first philosophers. Their ideas would soon spread across the Greek world, sparking a philosophical revolution. In 531, during the tyranny of Polycrates, Pythagoras left Samos and settled in southern Italy. There he established his own school of philosophy. Pythagoras is well known for his advancements in mathematics and geometry. He proposed a geocentric model of the universe, with Earth at the center of concentric spheres carrying stars and planets. Pythagoras believed in the transmigration of souls, meaning every soul is immortal, and upon death it enters into a new body. For this reason, he and his followers, known as Pythagoreans, lived lives of poverty and self-discipline. Heraclitus of Ephesus, one of the most influential philosophers of his time, rejected Pythagorean views on the harmonic universe. He argued that the world was in a constant state of flux, changing like a flowing river. Like the Milesians, he believed in a single origin of the universe, with fire being his element of choice. These philosophers, along with many others who we cannot mention here, would shape Greek thought for centuries to come. Their ideas could easily circulate around the Greek world through written works. Their successors would build upon these ideas, collectively laying the groundwork for western science. With these advancements in politics, military, arts and philosophy, an iconic rivalry emerged that would go on to define the Greek classical period. On one side, the militaristic Sparta ruled by kings, and on the other, the democratic Athens ruled by the people. Join us next time as we discuss the rise of Sparta and the formation of the Peloponnesian League.