The Vietnam Wars - Summary on a Map

We begin at the end of the 18th century on the Indochinese peninsula. Dai Viet, or Great Viet in English, stretches along the east coast and is an important stopover for European ships on their way to China and Japan. The latter also trade in the region, bringing with them Catholic missionaries who try to convert the local population. From a political point of view, the country is in fact divided in two, with the north being controlled by the Trinh clan and the south by the Nguyen. But high taxes and corruption impoverish the population, and in 1771, a rebellion takes place, led by the Tay Son clan. The Trinh see an opportunity and seize the capital, then ally themselves with the Tay Son. The Nguyen princes are gradually defeated and massacred, with the exception of Nguyen An, who manages to flee to Bangkok with a small army. The Tay Son then turn against the Trinh and conquer the entire country. At the same time in France, the economic situation is difficult following the country's defeat in the Seven Years' War and its involvement in the American Revolutionary War. King Louis XVI wants to revive the economy, notably by establishing new colonies. For his part, Nguyen An is desperately looking for military help to regain control of his country. The two come to an agreement. The French army will help Nguyen An in his reconquest, in exchange for which the latter agrees to cede to France the Kandao Islands and the port of Turin, as well as offering important trading privileges. In 1788, Nguyen An begins the reconquest of the south of the country. But in France, King Louis XVI is dethroned by the French Revolution and therefore cannot keep his promise. Only a few volunteer French officers offer their assistance to Nguyen An and his army. In Saigon, they build a fortified citadel in the style of Vabang. In 1802, the whole country is conquered, and Nguyen An becomes the first emperor of the Nguyen dynasty under the name of Giang Long. The country is renamed Vietnam, and Phu San becomes the imperial capital under the name of Hue. The new state is a vassal to the Qing Empire. Giang Long makes no concessions to France, arguing that the country has failed to keep its promises. In the following years, successive emperors are generally opposed to Western influence and regularly organize attacks against Catholics who are persecuted, along with French and Spanish missionaries who are tortured and executed. During the same period, the United Kingdom extends its influence in the Far East, establishing itself in Singapore and Hong Kong, and weakening China. In 1856, the Second Opium War begins. France is involved alongside the United Kingdom. China, on the other hand, is in trouble, especially as the country is torn apart by a major revolt that results in many deaths. At the same time in Vietnam, now called Dai Nam, but known to Westerners as An Nam, new and very deadly persecutions of Catholics are taking place. This time, France takes advantage of the presence of its armies in the area to launch a punitive expedition with the support of Spain. Turan and Saigon are taken, but at Turan, the French encounter difficulties and leave the city to concentrate their forces in Saigon. In 1860, at the end of the Second Opium War, large French reinforcements arrive in the Mekong Delta, forcing the emperor to sign a peace treaty. The emperor pledges to put an end to the massacre of Catholics and cedes three provinces to France, forming the colony of French Cochinchina. The French quickly set about building major projects in their new colony to develop agriculture and trade. Canals are dug in the Mekong Delta to boost rice production, and Saigon and its port are modernized to strengthen the country's influence and increase trade. In 1863, French accepts the Cambodian king's request to make his country a French protectorate to the detriment of neighboring Siam. Then, on the pretext of fighting a guerrilla war supported by the Dainam, France occupies the three southern provinces. Finally, in the far north, the country is also interested in the Red River, which can offer important commercial outlets as far as Yunnan in China, which is rich in minerals and tea, but still relatively isolated from international trade. But the Hanoi authorities oppose the arrival of French merchants on the river. A French expedition is sent to negotiate, but oversteps its mission and conquers the city. France disapproves and puts an end to the occupation. In exchange, it obtains a new treaty with Dainam. France can now trade freely on the Red River, and the three southern provinces are officially attached to French Cochinchina. In the following years, French traders on the Red River are harassed by the Black Flag Army, Chinese mercenaries who are established in the region. A new French expedition is sent to settle the situation, but once again, it decides on its own to conquer Hanoi. The Black Flag Army counterattacks, putting the expedition in a difficult situation. But this time, the new power in France is in favor of colonial expansion and sends reinforcements, while a fleet bombards the port of Hue, forcing the government to sign a new treaty. Dainam is divided, with Tonkin in the north and Anam in the south, and both become French protectorates. China rejects the treaty and begins invading Tonkin. Large French reinforcements are sent in and win the day. But despite the signing of an agreement and the Chinese withdrawal, the following month a new surprise offensive reignites the war. This time, a French fleet sets out to bombard Chinese ports, including Fuzhou, where it destroys a large Chinese naval fleet. On land, the French cross the Chinese border, but then are repulsed and retreat. Finally, a peace treaty is signed, putting a definitive end to the conflict. China recognizes the French protectorate over Anam and Tonkin. In 1887, France unites the three entities in Cambodia to form French Indochina. However, each part retains its political status, with French Cochinchina remaining a colony and Anam and Tonkin protectorates. But it takes the French a few more years to overcome a major resistance movement, which mainly targets the country's Christians, considered to be pro-French. In 1893, after putting pressure on Siam, France gains control of the left bank of the Mekong. The territory becomes the protectorate of Laos, which is integrated into French Indochina. From a political point of view, France strengthens its control over Anam by deposing the emperor, who it considers too opposed to its policies, and chooses his 8-year-old son to replace him. From an economic point of view, rice remains the colony's main source of income, so France attempts to diversify production by importing hevia to produce rubber. Global demand is high at the time, with the advent of the automobile and the bicycle boom. During World War I, the colony supplies large quantities of raw materials and sends over 90,000 workers and soldiers to France. At the end of the war, France promises to modernize its colonies. The University of Hanoi and a dozen colleges are opened. In Paris lives an Anamite named Nguyen Ai Kho, or Nguyen the Patriot in English. After having traveled around the world, he now becomes increasingly interested in politics, particularly in Lenin's Bolshevik Revolution, which demands the right of nations to self-determination. He joins the French Communist Party at its foundation and, in 1923, leaves for Moscow to study at the Communist University of the Toilers of the East. A few years later, in 1930, he founds the Vietnamese Communist Party in Hong Kong, whose main demand is the independence of Vietnam. At the same time, in French Indochina, nationalist movements are emerging. In addition, the new Emperor Bao Dai, who is studied in France and whose power is limited, attempts reforms but is not very popular as he is Catholic and seen as too westernized. At the beginning of World War II, France is invaded by the German military machine. Indochina finds itself ruled by an administration linked to Vichy France. But Japan, which is allied with Germany and at war with China, criticizes French Indochina for not sufficiently controlling the border, through which vital resources are passing to the Chinese army. Without finding agreement, the Japanese invade Tonkin militarily. The French are defeated and forced to cede to Japan privileged access to the colony's resources and the right to move freely within the territory. French sovereignty is maintained, but under close Japanese tutelage. But towards the end of the war, with the Allied victory looming, Japan anticipates its departure and decides to establish Asian states that are favorable to it. Within days, the entire French colonial administration is dismantled and the French troops are disarmed and taken prisoner. Those who resist are executed. Japan then creates the Empire of Vietnam, which unites Tonkin and Annam with Bao Dai at its head and pushes Cambodia and Laos into independence. But at the same time, Nguyen Ai Co, who is now called Ho Chi Minh and who has been present in Tonkin since the start of the war, is at the head of the Viet Minh, an independentist military organization fighting against both French colonization and Japanese occupation. He wins the support of the populace, who are suffering from a terrible famine caused by the Japanese occupation and Allied bombing. On August 15, 1945, Japan announces its surrender. In the immediate aftermath, the Viet Minh take advantage of the situation to gain a foothold throughout the entire country and obtain Bao Dai's abdication. On September 2, 1945, as Japan signs its surrender, Ho Chi Minh proclaims the independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. But in France, General de Gaulle wants to regain control of French Indochina. In the north, a Chinese army enters Tonkin, while in the south, an Anglo-Indian army lands in Saigon, where it tries to restore order by freeing French prisoners. But much of the population is hostile to the return of the colonists and riots break out, resulting in the massacre of hundreds of Frenchmen. The following month, the French army lands and with difficulty regains control of Cochinchina and southern Annam, while the north remains in Viet Minh hands. At the same time, negotiations lead to the withdrawal of Chinese forces from Tonkin and an initial agreement with Ho Chi Minh to find a peaceful solution. The French army is allowed to return to Hanoi without fighting, in exchange for which Ho Chi Minh goes to France to negotiate recognition of Vietnam, which would be integrated into the French Union. But the main bone of contention is Cochinchina, which France refuses to cede to Vietnam. Taking advantage of the presence of Ho Chi Minh in France, the autonomous Republic of Cochinchina is proclaimed, thus scuppering the negotiations. Back home, Ho Chi Minh takes up arms against the French, marking the start of the First Indochina War. After failing to retake Hanoi, Viet Minh forces retreat to the mountainous regions to the north. France creates the State of Vietnam, which includes Cochinchina and with Bảo Đại as head of state. At the same time, in China, following the communist victory over the nationalists, Mao Zedong proclaims the People's Republic of China. The Viet Minh gain a major ally and reorganize, gradually gaining territory. But in the new context of the Cold War, the United States begins an interventionist policy around the world to stem the spread of communism. The country, already involved in Korea, sees the Indochina War not as a colonial war, but as a war against communism. As a result, the United States now gives France its military support. France fortifies Hanoi and concentrates its forces on the Red River Delta. The front then freezes and the war becomes bogged down. In 1953, the Viet Minh armies extend their control westwards, occupying parts of Laos, which officially gains independence. France responds by parachuting forces into the heart of the Viet Minh zone to establish a fortified camp that can block the main road into Laos. But the Viet Minh counterattack and, after two months of fierce fighting, prevail, taking almost 12,000 French prisoners. France is forced to negotiate peace. At midnight on July 20, 1954, a treaty is signed. Vietnam is temporarily divided at the 17th parallel with the Communist Democratic Republic of Vietnam in the north and the State of Vietnam in the south, headed by Bảo Đại. A referendum should take place to reunify the country. The USA and South Vietnam do not sign the agreement. In the south, Bảo Đại is ousted from power by his Prime Minister Ngo Dinh Diem. The latter founds the Republic of Vietnam and strengthens his alliance with the United States by meeting with President Eisenhower. But his authoritarian policies make him unpopular and reinforce opposition movements. Among them are the communists of the National Liberation Front of South Vietnam, who are supplied by the North Vietnamese via a series of roads and tracks secretly built on either side of the borders with Laos and Cambodia. The situation becomes more complicated, forcing the United States to step up its support in order to avoid another setback in the Cold War. The country had indeed just failed to overthrow the communists in Cuba and had not been able to prevent the construction of the Berlin Wall. But Ngo Dinh Diem's excessively violent policies, particularly against the Buddhist majority, prompt the United States to support Hết Cửu Đại Thá. The situation becomes even more unstable, and Saigon's power collapses. The United States then uses a series of controversial incidents in the Gulf of Tonkin, between its naval vessels and North Vietnamese torpedo boats, as a pretext to launch bombing raids in the North and to send military troops to the South. With North Vietnam allied with China and the USSR, the United States initially limits its bombing raids to avoid escalation to nuclear war. The country avoids, at all costs, attacking Hanoi, the strategic port of Haiphong and the Chinese border zone. The Ho Chi Minh Trail becomes the main target, where US bombing attempts to stymie the supply of weapons and men to the National Liberation Front, which now numbers some 300,000 strong. The latter, co-named the Viet Cong by the US, organize a guerrilla war from the jungle, where they are hiding. Although the United States has the best army in the world, it is unable to win a pitched battle against an invisible and highly organized enemy. The United States tries to dislodge the Viet Cong from their hideouts by destroying crops and burning the jungle with napalm and by using Agent Orange, a powerful herbicide. Troops are also regularly dropped into Viet Cong-controlled areas, making surprise attacks on villages in search of communists. In the north, the United States steps up its bombing raids. But on the other side, the North Vietnamese devise a plan and organize attacks close to the border to draw US troops into the area. In January of 1968, a huge offensive coordinated by North Vietnam and the Viet Cong is launched throughout the South. Around 100 towns and military bases are attacked at the same time. It takes the United States a month to regain control, but the country realizes that victory will elude it unless it further increases troop levels. But in the United States, the war is becoming more and more unpopular, and pacifist movements are organizing. The United States has no choice but to enter into initial negotiations with the other camp in Paris. At the end of 1968, Richard Nixon is elected president on the promise of an honorable peace in Vietnam. But as peace protests gather momentum, he is desperate to find any other solution than defeat. He begins a very gradual withdrawal of the 540,000 soldiers present in Vietnam while betting on training South Vietnamese soldiers to take over. At the same time, the country steps up its bombing campaign, including in Laos and Cambodia, targeting the Ho Chi Minh Trail and Viet Cong positions. In Cambodia, following a coup d'état, the new government demands the withdrawal of the North Vietnamese and Viet Cong from its territory. In response, the latter attack the Cambodian army and even threaten the capital Phnom Penh. South Vietnam then sends reinforcements to Cambodia. On the international stage, China and the USSR, after numerous disagreements, break off their alliance. North Vietnam chooses to side with the Soviets, thus losing China's military support. At the same time, Nixon sets off to meet Mao Zedong in order to establish a diplomatic rapprochement with China, which could benefit him in Vietnam. A month later, as the withdrawal of U.S. troops gathers pace, a major North Vietnamese offensive is launched from the north and from Cambodia. The South Vietnamese manage to repel it with U.S. air support. North Vietnam loses 100,000 men and finds itself weakened. The United States takes advantage of the situation to step up bombardments, this time targeting all strategic infrastructures, including the ports of Haiphong and Hanoi. The aim is to force North Vietnam to speed up peace negotiations. But the biggest disagreement concerns whether Viet Cong forces should withdraw from the positions they control in the south. South Vietnam is vehemently opposed to abandoning territory. But the United States wants peace at all costs and puts pressure on its ally to accept. On January 27th, the Paris Peace Accords are signed. The United States undertakes to withdraw its last troops. North Vietnam agrees to a ceasefire and South Vietnam reluctantly relinquishes the areas controlled by the Viet Cong. Finally, all parties agree to withdraw their forces from Cambodia and Laos. After the complete withdrawal of the United States, the 1973 oil crisis forces the country to limit its aid to South Vietnam, whose economy is suffering. North Vietnam takes advantage of this situation and launches a new offensive in December 1974. South Vietnamese forces are overwhelmed and ask the United States for help, but Congress blocks any military intervention. In April, Saigon falls, and the city is renamed Ho Chi Minh City, in tribute to the former North Vietnamese leader who died of disease during the war. At the same time, Cambodia falls to the communist Khmer Rouge. The following month, Laos also finds itself under communist control. In 1976, the Socialist Republic of Vietnam is proclaimed, reunifying North and South. Some 3 million people died during the war, while the country was ravaged by the 7 million tons of bombs dropped by the USA, about three times as many as were dropped in Europe during the entirety of World War II. 20% of the country's forests and much of its farmland have been contaminated by Agent Orange, which will cause illness in between 1 and 3 million people, including many children, who will be born with deformities. Finally, around 1 million people will flee the new communist government. In Cambodia, now known as Democratic Kampuchea, the Khmer Rouge sets up an extremely violent dictatorship. The country, which receives military support from China, opposes Vietnamese domination of the region and organizes raids against Vietnamese border villages. In response, in December 1978, the Vietnamese army invades the country and establishes a government that favors it. In retaliation, China launches a punitive expedition and begins an invasion of northern Vietnam. After advancing a few dozen kilometers, the Chinese forces turn back, ravaging everything in their path as they retreat. Both sides claim victory. Tensions between the two countries will remain high as both claim control of the Paracel and Spratly Islands in the South China Sea.