The Neolithic Revolution [HotW #2]

The last great ice age has come to an end and the hunter-gatherers have survived. They thrived everywhere from east to west, but times were changing. This new environment brought new opportunities and with those a new way of life. Within just a few thousand years the hunter-gatherer lifestyle would become virtually extinct. This is the story of the largest single step towards modern society, the story of agriculture. By 12 000 BC human technology had entered the Neolithic era. Stone was still the primary tool-making material but its uses had become immensely sophisticated compared to earlier eras. The atmosphere was becoming warmer and drier which promoted the growth of annual plants that could lie dormant during drier seasons In particular the abundance of wild grasses exploded. It wasn't long before humans noticed these grasses could be harvested for their grain. This grain could be harvested and stored over longer periods of time due to one defining feature, it did not decay. For the first time humans could produce a surplus of food. This first happened in the Levant where the Natufian culture grew around this new method of food production. However this was not agriculture as we know it today. Humans were merely storing and processing grain from natural grasses without an understanding of how to control them. But this all changed around 9 000 BC when the planet went through a brief period of cooling called the Jungir Dryas. It caused the collapse of the Natufian culture and its people were forced to adapt. Some returned to the nomadic way of life of their predecessors but a select few took a bet with nature. They located a flood plain by the Jordan river valley and sowed some of the grain into the fertile soil. The result was revolutionary. The following year the grass they'd come to depend on had grown. They had gambled the precious grain and it paid off. This represents the first true agriculture and allowed the local population to continue their solitary way of life. This process was not just limited to the Levant or grasses. A total of eight crops were domesticated across the fertile crescent, sometimes known as the founder crops. They were linseed, emmer wheat, einkorn wheat, barley, lentils, peas, chickpeas and herbal. These same plants were domesticated independently in Egypt and most in the Indus valley as well. In China rice and millet were domesticated whilst in Mesoamerica and the Andes maize and the potato underwent domestication. These six regions acted as the drivers of agriculture on earth. Back in the Levant the nomads displaced by the younger dryas had begun to herd goats. These animals could be farmed for their milk and meat and could live easily off local vegetation. Goats were selectively bred to have shorter horns and exhibit less aggressive behavior and by 8000 BC these goat herders began to mix with agriculturalists. This provided a stable source of meat to the villages of the time and along with naturally growing fruit provided a varied diet. The supply of food now far outstripped the amount consumed allowing for growth in population across the centers of agriculture. As the population continued to grow the use of farming tools spread. Soil was kept fertile using ploughs and the process of harvesting was eased by sickles whilst the arrival of new cultures such as the halaf around 6000 BC prompted the introduction of pottery. Pottery in particular became significant for a number of reasons. It was primarily used to store excess food and water but over time also became a medium for creative expression. In addition pottery became one of the earliest specialist occupations as potters could trade their goods for food. By 5000 BC the halaf culture had collapsed and been replaced by the Ubaid culture farther south. Up until this point agriculturalists have been restricted to villages of no more than a few hundred people. A process of rapid urbanization allowed these small settlements to grow into cities. These cities acted increasingly more like states with each developing a more stratified society where the priestly elite would be responsible for the administration of the city. Specialist workers such as potters and tool makers would produce vital economic goods and the farmers would produce the city's food supply. Also during this period we see the rise of public architecture mostly in the form of temples. This implies the existence of a tax regime imposed by the city leaders and demonstrates the ever-increasing wealth of settled societies. Moving forward to 4000 BC the Uruk culture named after the city of the same name now dominated Mesopotamia. Much like the Ubaid period urban development continued so much so that Uruk's population may have exceeded 40 000. This was an occupationally diverse population and many households relied on trade to secure an income. Keeping track of trade in cities of this size was no longer possible using old methods and so two new major inventions came into being. Firstly the first genuine currency came into use in the form of clay tokens where each one would have the equivalent value of one sheep. Secondly much like today exchanges in this currency for goods and services had to be recorded. This was done by sourcing naturally occurring clay from riverbeds and inscribing symbols to record information. This style of writing is today known as kunai form and represents the oldest writing system in the world. Elsewhere too such as in Egypt and Indus valley cities of similar sizes were appearing and developed a similar economic infrastructure to that of Mesopotamia. But despite all this they were still using neolithic stone tools. During the 3000s BC this began to change. It was realized that smelting copper ore found in rocks yielded pure copper. This was stronger and more robust than stone and could be reshaped when heated. In a process known as the diffusion of metallurgy copper smelting had spread to most urban centers. The beginning of civilization were now coming to the fore and hence the age of stone at last comes to an end.