History of Germanic People: Those Who Were Feared By Rome

The Germanic peoples are an ancient group that started writing their history as far back as antiquity and played a significant role in the migration period and later in the Middle Ages. The Germanic peoples belonged to the Indo-European language family, and their culture emerged in northern Europe in the territories of present-day Denmark, southern Sweden, Norway, and northern Germany during the 2nd millennium BCE. Archaeological evidence suggests that the Proto-Germanic peoples were associated with the Nordic Bronze Age culture, which spanned from 1700 to 500 BCE. This culture was characterized by the production of bronze items, including weapons, jewelry, and objects of religious significance with relatively advanced craftsmanship. During this period, the Proto-Germanic people constructed burial mounds and stone tombs for their deceased. Around 500 BCE, the Proto-Germanic peoples began transitioning to the Iron Age, largely influenced by the Celts, who were the first in Europe to master ironworking technologies. This shift marked the emergence of two new cultures, with the Nordic Bronze Age culture as their common ancestor. The first was the Jasdorf culture, which developed on the Jutland Peninsula and in the Lower and Middle Elbe regions. This culture was characterized by change in burial practices. The deceased were now cremated, and their remains were placed in urns. In Scandinavia, the Nordic Iron Age culture evolved as a direct continuation of the traditions of the Nordic Bronze Age, adapted to the conditions of the Iron Age. This culture displayed continuity in daily life, burial rites, and social structures. It laid the foundation for the northern European peoples, while the Jasdorf culture is considered the basis for the further development of Germanic tribes that spread into Central Europe. The two cultures interacted at their borders, although they were somewhat geographically isolated from one another. Archaeological findings such as jewelry and weapons indicate a significant Celtic influence on the Jasdorf culture. However, the Germanic peoples had distinct artistic traditions of their own, particularly in ornamentation. One of the key characteristics of the Germanic tribes was their language. While it had Indo-European roots, it was markedly different from Celtic languages, as was their spiritual culture. The Germanic peoples had their own pantheon, worshipping deities such as Wotan, Odin, Tyr, and others. The early history of the Germanic peoples largely remains the subject of archaeological and linguistic research, as written sources from that period are very scarce. Nevertheless, there are occasional mentions of the literate peoples of antiquity making contact with Germanic tribes before their migration southward. For example, navigator and geographer Pythias from the Greek colony of Massalia returned in the second half of the 4th century BCE from a perilous voyage to the coasts of the North Sea and possibly the Baltic Sea. He was among the first to describe the Germanic tribes he encountered along these new shores. The development of the Jasdorf culture and their newfound mastery of metalworking marked a turning point in the history of the early Germanic peoples. Between the 4th and 1st centuries BCE, the climate began to change. Average annual temperatures dropped, and winters became harsher. As a result, the Germanic tribes gradually but steadily migrated and expanded their territory to the south and east, displacing the Celts in the process. Other neighbors of the Proto-Germanic peoples included the Balto-Slavic groups to the east and the Scythians to the southeast. The Germanic tribes also began to interact with the Romans on an active and regular basis. The Germanic peoples led a settled or semi-settled way of life. They engaged in agriculture, cultivated grain crops, and bred cattle. Due to the harsh climate of the northern regions and infertile soils, farming was often combined with hunting, fishing, and gathering. They lived in longhouses where both people and animals shared the space, helping to maintain warmth during the cold seasons. The Proto-Germanic peoples of this period were organized into tribes with social stratification. Tribal aristocracy played a significant role, often leading the clans during internal conflicts or external wars. The first major contact of the Germanic peoples and the Romans occurred in the 2nd century BCE. The Kimberi and Teutoni tribes, moving southward from Jutland, invaded Roman provinces. Initially, the tribesmen defeated Roman forces that attempted to block their advance southward. But the Kimberi and Teutoni were ultimately defeated by Gaius Marius in 102-101 BCE. For the Romans, this invasion was a shock, a barbarian incursion from the north by peoples about whom they knew almost nothing. The term Germanic was first mentioned by Julius Caesar in his commentaries on the Gallic War during the 1st century BCE. Around 71 BCE, Ariovistus, the leader of the Germanic Suebi tribe, responded to an invitation from the Celtic Sequani tribe to assist them in their conflict with another Celtic tribe, the Aedui. Ariovistus succeeded in defeating the Aedui, but afterward he seized power over both the Aedui and the Sequani. He also claimed significant territories and brought a large number of Suebi into the region. Even then, Ariovistus demonstrated his skills as both a warrior and a politician. He sought to avoid conflict with Rome and attempted to negotiate a division of spheres of influence in Gaul with Caesar, even earning the Senate's designation as a friend of the Roman people. However, this did not secure his position. His rule was unstable as discontented Celts appealed to Caesar for help. In 58 BCE, Caesar intervened, and after a series of failed negotiations, the Romans and the Suebi faced off in the Battle of the Volge. Caesar emerged victorious, forcing Ariovistus and the remnants of his forces to retreat across the Rhine. Thanks to Caesar, there is a fairly comprehensive description of the Germanic peoples. The Roman commander took pains to distinguish them from the Celts. Caesar placed the Germanic tribes east of the Rhine, while the Celts, Gauls, lived to the west of the river. The Gauls led a settled lifestyle, engaging in agriculture, developing crafts, and building towns known as apada. In contrast, the Germanic peoples, as in earlier periods, were more mobile, combining farming with livestock raising, and their way of life retained elements of nomadism. Caesar also noted the asceticism of the Germanic tribes, their disdain for luxury, and their courage and warlike nature. Their war bands were less organized compared to the Celtic ones, and certainly to the Roman legions. However, on the battlefield, the Germanic warriors sought to compensate their lack of manpower with brutality and reckless determination. Clashes between the Germanic peoples and the Romans began almost immediately upon their contact at the frontier between two eras. However, the relationship was not solely hostile. Since the Bronze Age, the Germanic tribes had been trading with the peoples of the Mediterranean. When the Germanic tribes displaced the Celts from Central Europe and came into direct proximity to Roman territories, this trade only intensified, as did cultural exchange. By the 1st century CE, the Germanic peoples' territory had begun to expand southwestward and eastward. The most prominent Germanic tribes of this period included the Carusci, Suebi, Marcomanni, Katti, Batevi, Brukteri, and Chamavi, though there were many others. By the 1st century BCE, the Germanic tribes inhabited regions corresponding to modern-day Germany, Denmark, parts of the Netherlands, the Czech Republic, Poland, Sweden, and Norway. From 12 BCE to 9 CE, the so-called Expansion of Emperor Augustus took place, the period when he sought to extend Roman control into Germanic territories. Roman generals Drusus the Elder and Tiberius led extensive campaigns against the Germanic tribes. Drusus advanced as far as the Elba River, and after his death, Tiberius worked to consolidate Roman influence in the region. Augustus aimed to achieve in Germania what Julius Caesar had accomplished in Gaul more than half a century earlier. However, unlike the continental Celts, the Germanic tribes managed to mount not only determined but also highly effective resistance against the invaders. In 9 CE, the Carusci chieftain Arminius united a powerful coalition of Germanic tribes under his command. The Romans attempted to integrate Germanic territories into their state using administrative systems, fortifications, infrastructure, and the involvement of local elites. Arminius himself belonged to the aforementioned elites. Prior to Augustus' expansion, he had fought on Rome's side as a commander of an auxiliary unit, a common Roman practice. This approach allowed Rome to gain additional allies and encouraged surrounding peoples to become part of its powerful empire. The rewards included not only wealth but also Roman citizenship, which was considered both prestigious and advantageous. Arminius was among those who earned this privilege through military distinction. However, while he was willing to ally with Rome, he refused to become its vassal. Instead, Arminius sought to unite the Germanic tribes and resist the Roman invasion. The Roman army, led by Varus, the governor of the new province of Germania, consisted of three legions, 17, 18, and 19, as well as several auxiliary cohorts and cavalry. The total number of troops reached 25,000. The army was moving from summer camps to winter bases when Arminius convinced Varus that it was necessary to suppress a fabricated rebellion deep in Germanic lands. Varus set out on the campaign, ignoring the advice of another German, Segestus, who warned the governor not to trust Arminius. The Romans moved through the dense Teutoburg Forest. The army stretched out on the march, making it easy for Arminius to set up a successful ambush. The chieftain gathered a coalition of several tribes with approximately 15,000 to 20,000 warriors. The Romans were more numerous, but they couldn't fully deploy their forces. The attack by the Germans began with a barrage of darts and spears, after which the tribesmen engaged in close combat. By the end of the first day, the Romans had suffered heavy losses, although the legionnaires managed to set up an improvised camp for the night. On the second and third days, the fighting continued. The Romans tried to break through to safer ground, but were surrounded. The defeat was inevitable, and Varus, along with several of his officers, took their own lives. The rest of the Roman forces were almost completely destroyed, and only a few survivors made it back to the Rhine. The Teutoburg Disaster marked Rome's first major failure in a territory it had hoped to turn into a new province. For the Romans, it was not only a military defeat, but also a political blow that forced Augustus and his successors to reconsider their plans for expansion in the region. The Germans captured numerous prisoners as well as a significant amount of military equipment, banners, and even the eagle standards of the legions, which was a great disgrace for Rome. After the victory, Arminius gained fame as the liberator of the Germans, although he later had to face internal conflicts among the tribes. Emperor Augustus, upon learning of the defeat, was so shocked by the loss of three legions in a single battle that, according to reports, he repeatedly shouted, Quintiliware legiones rede! Quintilius Varus, give me back my legions! Rome abandoned its plans for the complete conquest of Germania, establishing the Rhine as a new border and beginning the construction of the Limes, a system of much-needed frontier defenses. Rome, however, sought revenge by taking advantage of conflicts among the Germans. Arminius and the aforementioned Segestus, who had tried to warn Varus about the ambush, were rivals among the Cherusci, although both held leading positions in the tribe. Their relationship was complicated by personal, political, and strategic differences. Arminius, a young and ambitious leader, sought the independence of the Germans and actively opposed Roman influence, while Segestus supported cooperation with Rome, seeing it as a way to maintain his power. Germanic tribes used to have multiple leaders to avoid centralization. Among the Cherusci, Arminius and Segestus led different factions. One part supported independence, while the other favored cooperation and integration with the empire, although they were reluctantly drawn into the struggle against Rome. There was also a personal conflict between the leaders. Segestus' daughter, Tusnelda, married Arminius against her father's will. Segestus saw this marriage as a political challenge and a personal insult. After the Emperor Augustus passed in 14 AD, the new Emperor Tiberius, the same one who, together with his brother Drusus the Elder, had conquered Germania, sought to restore control over the rebellious province. He entrusted Germanicus, a popular general and his nephew, with conducting campaigns on the German front. Rome sought revenge and therefore gathered large forces. Germanicus commanded a huge army which included eight legions, approximately 50,000 soldiers, auxiliary troops, and a significant number of ships for transporting the army across the Rhine. That same year, Germanicus launched his first attempt into Germanic territory, a punitive expedition against the Catti tribe. The Romans burned settlements, destroyed infrastructure, and freed many Roman hostages that the Germans had held captive since the defeat of Varus. In 15 AD, Germanicus continued the campaign, using both ground troops and the fleet. The Roman army advanced deep into Germanic lands. Segestus learned of the Romans' approach and betrayed not only the independent Germans, but also his own daughter, when he handed her over as a hostage to the Romans. Tusnelda was pregnant, so it was an extremely painful blow both for Arminius and for the entire tribe. In 16 AD, the decisive battle took place on the Weser River between Germanicus and Arminius' forces. The Romans crossed the river and faced the Germans on an open plain near a forest named Idistavus. The battle began with an attack by the Germans, who tried to push the Romans toward the forest. However, Germanicus effectively used the legions and cavalry for a counterattack. The Romans pushed the Germans back, who were unable to break through the enemy lines. The tribesmen were attacked from the flanks and cut off from the forest. Arminius fled, but his forces suffered a devastating defeat. In 16 AD, Germanicus also organized a large naval campaign when he landed on the coast of modern-day northern Germany. His forces attacked the lands of the Angravarian. The last major battle was fought near the Angravarian Wall. Although the Romans won, the Germans managed to halt the invaders once again, thanks to natural conditions, mobility, and knowledge of the terrain. Constant attacks on Roman units and desperate forays weakened Germanicus' forces. In addition to remarkable bravery, the Germans were also known for their resistance to the cold, while the harsh weather conditions of the forested Germania were a severe trial for the Romans. Although Germanicus returned to Rome and in 17 AD triumphantly paraded the captive Tusnelda through the city in chains, he was unable to establish control over the Germanic lands. While evaluating the costs of the campaigns, Tiberius ultimately decided to abandon attempts to conquer territories east of the Rhine. Segestus fled from the vengeance of the Germans to Roman lands. The later fate of Tusnelda and her son by Arminius, Tumelicus, was described in a part of the chronicles by the Roman historian Tacitus, which, unfortunately, is nowadays considered lost. Arminius remained a key figure of the Germanic resistance. After Germanicus' campaigns, he tried to consolidate his power, but his ambitions caused feuds among the Germans. In 21 AD, Arminius was killed as a result of a conspiracy. However, Rome ultimately abandoned its plans to conquer territories beyond the Rhine, and this border became a natural divide between the empire and the Germanic tribes. The Germans maintained their independence and gradually strengthened their power structures and economic ties. The role of elected chieftains grew, and they were most often chosen from among military leaders. The Germanic tribes began to form larger alliances. The Germans gradually spread out. A number of tribes migrated south and east, settling in regions previously inhabited by Celts or other peoples. For example, the Goths began to move from Scandinavia to the territories of modern-day Poland and Ukraine between the 1st and early 3rd century. Among all the Germanic peoples, the influence of individual leaders grew, gradually centralizing power. Different Germanic tribes began to have more active contact with the Slavs and Sarmatians, as evidenced by archaeological findings and the accounts of Roman historians such as Strabo, Pliny the Elder, Dio Cassius, and Tacitus. Speaking about archaeological discoveries, a lot of pottery has been found in the Carpathian region, the central Dnieper region, and the Black Sea region, that combines elements of the Przeworski, most likely Germanic, and Zerubensi, Proto-Slavic cultures. Sarmatian burials with elements of Germanic weapons and jewelry, such as fibulas and swords, testify to military contacts and possibly the service of Germans as mercenaries in Sarmatian armies. The discovery of Roman coins in Germanic and Sarmatian tribes points to the existence of a wide trade network that connected these peoples through Roman markets. Thus, all the aforementioned groups actively interacted, sometimes engaging in conflicts and at other times trading and cooperating. However, the contacts with Rome still were of utmost importance for the Germanic tribes. Rome continued to recruit talented warriors and generals as mercenaries. Some Germanic leaders actively participated in Roman politics as allies and received Roman rewards or the status of federates. The Germans played an important role in 69-70 AD during the Batavian Revolt led by Gaius Julius Civilis. Civilis, a Roman officer of German descent, led the revolt in the territory of modern-day Netherlands. The rebellion was suppressed, but in order to do so, Rome had to enlist the help of its Germanic allies. Romans and Germans fought side by side on both sides of the conflict. We owe the most complete description of the Germans to the Roman historian Tacitus. In 98 AD, he wrote the work Germania. In it, Tacitus asserts that the Germans are an indigenous people of their land and emphasizes the harsh climate and inhospitable landscape that shaped their character. Tacitus described the tribesmen as natural-born warriors who fought mostly on foot, though they also used cavalry. Their weapons were relatively simple, and their main form of protection was the shield. Interestingly, although Tacitus describes the Germans as a threat to Rome, he focuses on their honesty, particularly emphasizing their faithfulness in marriage. Tacitus and other ancient sources often mention that the Germans were larger and stronger than the Romans, with light hair and skin. Archaeological findings confirm that an average German was taller than an average Roman. The advantage in strength helped Germans to win in close combat, but the Roman army still prevailed with a high level of organization, discipline, and tactical skill. As for their weaponry, the Germans did not have standardized equipment. For offensive weapons, they used spears, axes, but mostly short swords. The Germans preferred light armor, relying on speed, maneuverability, and individual combat skills. From the beginning of the 2nd century, the Germans continued to strengthen their position. Due to the growing power and numbers of the Germans, isolated clashes in the border regions turned into large-scale conflicts, such as the Marcomannic Wars. The conflict was also caused by the migrations of other peoples such as the Sarmatians, Goths, and Alans, who exerted pressure on the Germanic tribes of Central Europe. The Roman Empire was led by Emperor Marcus Aurelius, and the key roles in the coalition of Germanic tribes were played by the Marcomanni, Cuadi, and Suebi. The war began around 166 AD, when a coalition of Germans crossed the Danube and launched an invasion of the Roman provinces of Pannonia and Noricum. The first invasion was linked to the collapse of the Roman defense due to the plague, which significantly weakened the legions. The Germans carried out several large-scale raids, and their advance forced the Romans to mobilize all available forces. Marcus Aurelius personally led the campaign, demonstrating his military and administrative skills. One of the first major battles was the restoration of control over Pannonia, where the Germans were forced to retreat across the Danube after a counterattack by the Roman legions. In 171 AD, Marcus Aurelius launched a counteroffensive. The Romans conducted several successful operations, capturing Germanic fortifications and burning their settlements. During this time, there were constant skirmishes along the Danube River, which was the main theater of operations. The Germans suffered heavy losses, but still managed to regroup. In the Battle of the Danube in 172 AD, the Romans won, forcing the Germans to retreat. The Romans continued to push the tribesmen back, but found themselves on the verge of defeat in 174 AD. At that point, Marcus Aurelius personally led his army to battle against a much larger force of well-armed Germanic tribes near the Danube. The Germans harassed the Romans and inflicted significant losses upon the legions, taking advantage of both their own strengths and the landscape. However, a sudden heavy downpour saved the Roman forces from encirclement. Marcus Aurelius was able to take advantage of this and regroup. After a series of maneuvers and counterattacks, the situation on the battlefield shifted, and the Germans were defeated. After this string of events, the Roman Empire was able to make peace with the Germans, forcing the tribesmen to give hostages and pledge not to attack Roman territories. The final stage of the war was defensive in nature until 180 AD, when, after the death of Marcus Aurelius, his son and successor Commodus made peace with the Germans. The war ended without a decisive outcome, but strengthened Roman control over the Danube and weakened the Germanic alliances. Despite the defeats, the Germans continued to strengthen their forces. This later played a key role for them during the migration period. In the 2nd and 3rd centuries, Germanic tribes continued to pressure the borders of the Roman Empire, especially along the Rhine-Danube frontier. Gradually, large tribal confederations emerged among the Germans. Alemanni, Saxons, Vandals, Goths, Frisians, Basternae, Suebi, Marcomanni, and many others. The tribal nobility strengthened their power, forming early signs of monarchical rule, an important first step toward statehood. Probably the most famous example was the emergence of the Gothic state in the 3rd century, which became one of the first known state formations of the Germans. The Goths likely originated from the southern regions of Scandinavia and gradually migrated to the territories of modern Poland, Ukraine, and Moldova. In the mid-3rd century they formed a powerful union called the Oium. In 238 they attacked the Roman province of Dacia, and in 251 they dealt a crushing defeat to the Romans at the Battle of Obrytus, where both the Emperor Decius and his son Herennius Etruscus were killed. The Franks gradually consolidated in the Upper and Middle Rhine regions. They actively interacted with the Romans, often serving in the Roman army, but at the same time carried out raids into Gaul. The Saxons, inhabitants of the North Sea coast, were famous for their naval raids on Britain and Gaul. The Alemanni, who lived in the Upper Rhine region, repeatedly attacked Roman territories. In particular, during two campaigns in 213 and 260, they managed to break through the Rhine and briefly capture parts of Gaul. The Vandals, who initially lived between the Vistula and Oder rivers, gradually moved south, reaching the Roman provinces in Pannonia. The military elite of the Germans transformed into a hereditary aristocracy. This contributed to the formation of the comitatus system, where chieftains gathered professional warriors around themselves and made those warriors economically and politically dependent on them. Such a structure increased the combat effectiveness of German armies in their confrontation with Roman legions. Metallurgy developed among the Germans, particularly the production of weapons and jewelry. Trade expanded. Germanic languages developed, gradually splitting into three main branches during the period of migration. Northern, the ancestor of Scandinavian languages, Western, the ancestor of German, English, and Dutch, and Eastern, Gothic, and others. Language became one of the main markers of their cultural identity. Rome was not the only adversary of the Germans. For example, in the 3rd century, the Goths fought against the Sarmatians as well as neighboring Germanic tribes such as the Jepids. There are also records of numerous internal conflicts between the Franks and the Alemanni, who fought for control over the upper Rhine region. The settlement of the Germans in the early stages of their history was accompanied by the active development of their culture, organization, and early state structures. This allowed them to survive the Great Migration of the 4th and 5th centuries, which radically changed Europe. The Germans became key players in the fall of the Western Roman Empire and built their own states on its ruins, which shaped the fate of Europe for the following centuries. The kingdoms of the descendants of the ancient Germans were spread across various corners of the Old World, from the Ukrainian Crimea in the east to Britain in the west, from Italy in the south to Scandinavia in the north.