Ancient cities. Before and after. #history

Hungary is a country with a rich history and unique culture in the heart of Europe. The formation of the country began long before the emergence of its modern borders. Civilizations intersected on Hungarian land since ancient times, trade routes passed through, empires clashed, and new peoples emerged, from the first settlers to the arrival of the Magyars. The first people appeared on the territory of modern Hungary during the Paleolithic era. Like the people in the rest of Europe, they belonged to several cultures of the Pannonian Basin. Neanderthals who lived in the Ered region hunted as far as the Gerecsa Mountains for cave bears, wild horses, woolly rhinoceri and other animals. During the Neolithic period, this region became the center of the Starčevo-Koruš culture, and later the Linear Pottery culture. The latter practiced slash-and-burn agriculture, livestock breeding, and pottery making. They crafted simple clay cups, goblets, vases, and jugs without handles. The presence of these cultures indicates a high level of social organization in the region at the time. With the transition to the Bronze Age, the Pannonian Basin became an important center of bronze casting. A characteristic culture of this time was the Otomani archaeological culture. It spread across eastern Hungary and Slovakia, and western Romania and Ukraine. The high level of this culture is best evidenced by fortified settlements of the time. These were built primarily for defense. The highly developed defensive architecture includes moats, stone walls, towers, and complex gates protected by bastions. This culture is also known for producing bronze jewelry, weapons, tools, and ceramics. At the turn of the 9th to 8th centuries BC, the Iron Age began in the Pannonian Basin. The region was inhabited by ancient Iranian tribes that brought changes to the households, social structure, and culture. Hungarian archaeologists have discovered numerous warrior burials with weapons. Like other Iranian-speaking nomads, nobles were buried with specially prepared items for the afterlife. Later, in the 5th century BC, Illyrian tribes settled in the southern territories of the Transdanubian region. Soon after, Celtic tribes entered the basin. They developed metal casting and introduced the first coin minting in this part of Europe. All of this laid the groundwork for the future Magyar history. From this period, starting with the early Iron Age, the history of the Proto-Hungarian people can be traced. In the 1st millennium BC, the Hungarian language separated from the group of Ugric languages, Kanti and Mansi. Thanks to linguistic studies, we can trace the origins of the Hungarians. In antiquity and the Middle Ages, scholars believed that Hungarians were descendants of the Scythians and Huns. Nevertheless, this theory lost popularity in the 18th century. At that time, the linguistic relationship between Hungarian and Uralic languages was established. Therefore, it is considered that the ancestors of the Hungarians were part of the Uralic-Finnic tribes who lived by combining hunting, fishing and animal husbandry. To this day, the exact place and time of the emergence of the Magyar ethnic group remains a subject of scholarly debate. The most popular theory regarding the location of the Proto-Hungarian tribes until the mid 1st millennium BC is their presence in western Siberia. From there, they gradually migrated westward to the Ural region. A well-known account of Hungarian presence in the Urals comes from the journeys of monk Julian in the 1230s. He set out in search of the legendary homeland of the Magyars, Greater Hungary. Julian discovered a Hungarian-speaking group near the Volga in the lands of the Volga Bolgars, in modern-day Bashkortostan. The reasons for their migration from Siberia included climate change, the shift to animal husbandry, and increasing pressure from the Altai and Samoyedic tribes. It was at this time that the Ugrians began interacting with Iranian-speaking Scythian and Sarmatian tribes. These contacts enriched their language and helped them improve their metalworking technology and horse breeding. While the Proto-Hungarian tribes gradually moved westward toward the Pannonian plain, at the end of the 1st century BC, Emperor Octavian Augustus captured the territories between the Drava and Sava rivers, as well as the eastern Alps. Later, Emperor Claudius expanded Roman rule north and east to the Danube, creating the province of Pannonia. Local cultures integrated with the Roman one and gradually became Romanized. Over four centuries of Roman rule, an advanced and prosperous civilization emerged. Crafts and trade flourished, and Christianity gradually spread. Many important cities in modern Hungary were founded during this period, such as Aquincum, now part of Budapest, Sopiani, Arabona, and Solva. Besides commercial significance, Pannonia also had a strategic role. It protected the Roman Empire from the Alans along the natural border of the Danube. During the 420s AD, the Huns expanded their power over the territory of modern Hungary. In 433, the Roman general Aetius signed an agreement with the Hunnic ruler Rugula, transferring Pannonia to him. Just two years later, the Huns, led by Attila and his brother Bleda, forced the Eastern Roman Empire to sign the Treaty of Margus. This treaty confirmed the and military superiority of the Huns. The peak of the empire's power came during Attila's reign, which lasted until his death in 453. In the Middle Ages, Hungarian chroniclers, especially János Turoci, tried to establish succession between the Huns and the Magyars to prove the ancient and noble origins of the Hungarian people. Even so, modern historiography does not confirm any migration of the Magyars together with the Huns in the 4th to 5th centuries. After Attila's death, the Hunnic Empire quickly disintegrated. Gothic historian Jordanes describes the Battle of Nedau, in which the Huns, led by Elek, were defeated by the Gepid king Arderech. Elek died, and the Huns retreated eastward, while the Germanic tribes gained independence. After a crushing defeat in another conflict with the Eastern Roman Empire, the Huns disappeared from European history altogether. The decline of the Hunnic Empire led to continuous shifts in power and migrations across the territory of modern Hungary. Ostrogoths, Gepids, Lombards, Slavs, and other tribes and peoples fought for dominance in the region. The Avar Khaganate was another state formation that included the territory of present-day Hungary. For over two centuries, the rule of the Turkic-speaking nomadic Avars was established in Pannonia. In 567, the Avars, together with the Lombards, defeated the Gepids. But the Lombards did not remain in Pannonia for long. Soon after, in 568, they moved to Italy, leaving the Pannonian Basin under Avar control. During their rule, the Avars turned Pannonia into the center of a powerful nomadic empire. They built fortified camps, controlled vital trade routes, and established their authority over the local Slavic tribes. The Avar elite led a nomadic lifestyle, while the subordinate population, mostly Slavs, engaged in agriculture, crafts, and even served in the military. Nevertheless, internal conflicts, uprisings, and attacks from the Franks eventually led to the collapse of the Khaganate. The Avar story in Pannonia ended, but by the end of the 9th century, the Magyars arrived. As a result of a prolonged migration from the Ural region in the late 8th to early 9th century, the Magyars settled in Leveria, on the border of the Khazar Khaganate. This is first mentioned by Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus in his work De Administrando Imperio. According to him, Leveria was named after the semi-legendary Magyar leader Levedi, who was a vassal of the Khazars. However, modern historians question Constantine VII's account. Under pressure from the Pechenegs, the Magyars were forced to leave Leveria. Part of the population crossed the Caucasus mountains and settled south of them. But the majority fled to the steppes north of the Black Sea, to the so-called lands of Etelkerts. There, the Hungarian leader Almos led them. According to the Hungarian chronicler Anonymous, the Magyars formed a confederation called the Seven Magyars. Seven leaders swore a blood oath of eternal loyalty to Almos, who is considered the founder of the Arpad dynasty and one of the leaders who led the Magyars to their homeland. Still, his son Arpad became the true national hero, leading the conquest of the homeland. This conquest was preceded by a serious conflict with the First Bulgarian Empire. In 894, the Byzantines, unwilling to enter a direct war with the Bulgarians, decided to employ Magyar military power. At the time, the Magyars were settled in the steppes between the Dniester and Dnipro rivers. Already experienced in warfare and hired as mercenaries in foreign conflicts, they accepted the emperor's offer. Arpad led the campaign. The Magyars invaded the territory of the First Bulgarian Empire and ravaged its northeastern lands. But the situation soon changed. Bulgarian ruler Simeon I called on the Pechenegs for help and formed an alliance. The Bulgarians and Pechenegs attacked the Magyars from both sides, trapping them. This defeat forced Arpad to make a fateful decision. He left the steppe and crossed the Carpathians into Pannonia. That marked a new chapter in Magyar history. According to the Illustrated Chronicle, the Hungarians had a dual leadership system. Thus, at the end of the 9th century, Almos proclaimed his son as the leader and military commander of the Hungarian tribal federation, while he himself became the so-called sacral leader. Such a leader could not move to a new land, as his power and authority were tied to the territory where he received them. Therefore, Almos never reached Pannonia. His life ended mysteriously. One version claims he committed suicide, another says he was sacrificed in a ritual. After arriving in Pannonia around 895, the Magyars established their own state, the Principality of Hungary. They retained their dual system of governance. Arpad and Kursan divided the powers between them. One became Gyula, the sacred leader, the other Kende, the military leader. The exact distribution of power remains unclear. It was thanks to Kursan that, by the end of the 9th century, the Magyars captured the lands of Moravia and the southern part of present-day Hungary, then controlled by the Bulgarian Kingdom. Forming an alliance with East Frankish ruler Arnulf, the Magyars attacked the Great Moravian Empire to defend the eastern borders of the East Frankish Kingdom. Arnulf promised Kursan the Moravian territories conquered by force as spoils of war. Kursan also invaded the southern lowlands under Bulgarian rule. His story ended in 904, when he was treacherously killed on the orders of East Frankish king Louis the Child during negotiations with the Franks. Despite the establishment of the Principality of Hungary and some territorial gains, the conquest of the homeland continued. Initially, the Magyars consolidated control in eastern Pannonia. By the early 10th century, they expanded westward. Their conquest of the western lands was facilitated by a deal with the East Frankish emperor. In 899, Arnulf offered the Hungarians an alliance against King Berengar of Italy. The Battle of the Brenta River became a decisive event in the Italian campaign. In August to September of 899, the Magyars launched one of the boldest raids in their history. They devastated northern Italy and reached Pavia, the capital of the Italian kingdom and residence of King Berengar I. At first, it seemed like a typical Magyar raid, but they had prepared a trap. When Berengar gathered an army of about 15,000 cavalry, three times the size of the Magyar force, the Magyars feigned a panicked retreat. Near Verona, the Magyar rearguard was attacked, but the main forces managed to cross a bridge to the opposite bank of the Brenta River, where they stopped and offered Berengar a deal. They would leave all the plunder and never return to Italy in exchange for a safe withdrawal. Confident in his strength, Berengar refused. He ordered his troops to make camp on the right bank and did not expect a battle. The army built a wagon fort, but failed to secure the river crossing. The climax of the battle came when three Hungarian military units secretly forded the shallow river and positioned themselves strategically around the Italian camp. Most Italian soldiers were inside the fortifications, eating and drinking carelessly. The three Hungarian units then attacked with arrows, catching the Italians off guard. Soon after, they launched a powerful flanking strike that broke Italian resistance. The battle lasted only a few hours and ended in complete destruction of the Italian forces. King Berengar barely escaped by disguising himself as an ordinary soldier and fleeing the battlefield. The death of Arnulf after the Italian campaign freed the Hungarians from their alliance with the East Frankish Kingdom. On their return home, they extended their power into Transdanubia. By the early 10th century, the Magyars captured northwestern territories of modern Hungary, which were previously held by the Moravians. After this, the Moravian state ceased to exist. The Hungarians established control over the conquered lands without major battles or significant resistance. For economic and political gain, the Magyar leaders who had settled in the Pannonian Basin began launching offensive campaigns in the early 10th century. Hungarian historiography refers to them as adventurous raids. The Magyars attacked Saxony, Swabia, Lotharingia, Lombardy, and other western European regions. They brought back rich spoils from these campaigns, jewelry, slaves, weapons, and much more. But these campaigns also served a political purpose. They were a means of pressuring neighboring peoples. Victories also bolstered the Hungarian prince's authority and forced other rulers to take him seriously. The most successful battles occurred between 907 and 910. In 907, the Magyars crushed the Bavarian army that had invaded their territory. This took place near Pressburg. The victory not only preserved control of the Pannonian Basin, but also opened the way for raids into Greater Moravia, Germany, France, and Italy. The following year, the Hungarians won the Battle of Eisenach in Thuringia. The Duke of Thuringia, Burchard, Bishop Rudolf I of Würzburg, and many other high-ranking officials died in this clash. Finally, in 910, the Magyars defeated the united Frankish Imperial Army of King Louis the Child in the First Battle of Lechfeld. The Hungarians once again successfully lured the enemy into a trap, inflicted heavy losses, and forced them to flee the battlefield. All the same, Magyar defeats began in the second quarter of the 10th century. Their greatest loss came at the Second Battle of Lechfeld near Augsburg in 955. Here, the Hungarian army, led by Bolczu, Lehel, and Schürr, faced the forces of Otto I and Conrad the Red. The Magyars had destroyed the Bohemian rearguard legion. Upon hearing this, Otto I sent Duke Conrad with a strong cavalry unit into battle. The Hungarians were forced into hand-to-hand combat, something that favored the heavily armed knights. For the Hungarians, who usually relied on maneuverable light cavalry and avoided such clashes, this proved fatal. During the battle, Conrad the Red was killed. Nonetheless, the heavily armed knights and adverse weather conditions left the Magyars with no chance. They could not withstand the army of the King of Germany. The Hungarian leaders were captured, brought to Augsburg, and executed. This battle marked the end of the period of the Magyars' adventurous raids. After many legendary campaigns and ultimately defeats, the time for change came for the Principality of Hungary. Due to a shortage of pastures needed for nomadic life, the Magyars were forced to settle and turn to agriculture. Society became more homogeneous. The local Slavic and other populations blended with the Hungarians. The old tribal leadership system had run its course. When Géza I became prince, he centralized power. He acted ruthlessly against the tribal chieftains who wanted to retain their independence from the authority of the Grand Prince. His son Istvan later recalled that Géza's hands were covered in blood. To strengthen his power and establish relations with the Holy Roman Emperor Otto I, Géza, along with his family and part of his entourage, accepted Western Christianity in 973. Thus, his baptism was entirely political in nature, and he remained a pagan in practice. Despite this, Géza supported the construction of the first churches and allowed missionary activity. He began forming a new religious infrastructure, laying the foundation for transforming Hungary into a Christian state. Géza actively arranged dynastic marriages to elevate the authority of the Hungarian Principality. He relied less on military campaigns, but did not entirely avoid them. Taking advantage of internal conflicts that arose in the Holy Roman Empire after the death of Emperor Otto II, Géza invaded Bavaria and captured the Fortress of Melk. Even so, he later gave it up, as well as the lands east of the Laita River, signing a peace treaty with Henry IV of Bavaria in 996. Géza achieved a diplomatic victory by marrying his son István to Henry IV's sister Gézala. This marriage strengthened István's position in the line of succession. Hungary had come a long way, from a nomadic Magyar confederation to a Christian principality that became an important part of European civilization. Thanks to the determination of its rulers, the influence of Christianity, and a striving for unity, the Hungarians not only preserved their identity, but also played a significant role in shaping medieval Europe.