History Of The Nomads: From The Cimmerians To The Sarmatians

The Indo-European linguistic community, from which most of the peoples of the old world trace their origins, is diverse in its cultural heritage. The peoples of this group led different ways of life, and although most of them chose the land and settled on it, gradually spreading ever wider, there were also those who roamed the territories of Europe and the Near East, becoming shrouded in legends. The origin of the Cimmerians remains enigmatic. This people is often associated with the Catacomb culture, which existed in the southern and eastern territories of present-day Ukraine and the Northern Caucasus. Some researchers believe that the Cimmerians are direct descendants of the Corded Ware culture and the Pitgrave culture of the Bronze Age, making them indigenous to this region. It is likely that due to climate changes, which in the 10th to 9th centuries BCE became warmer and more arid in this area, the local population transitioned from sedentary farming to nomadic pastoralism. This shift was influenced by cultural exchanges with the nomads of Central Asia. The change in lifestyle led to the formation of Cimmerian culture precisely during the period of iron adoption, which gradually replaced bronze. Nevertheless, another theory suggests that the Cimmerians were merely an early Scythian tribe that branched off and migrated westward into Europe ahead of the others, where they mixed with the local population. In any case, the Cimmerians are first mentioned in Assyrian sources dating from the 9th to 7th centuries BCE. In these texts, they are often described as a nomadic people moving from the territories of the northern Black Sea region, causing significant damage to neighboring peoples of the Near East during their raids, including Urartu and Media. For example, in the cuneiform inscriptions of the Assyrian king Sargon II, the Cimmerians are mentioned as Gemiri, carrying out raids on the kingdom of Urartu, an enemy of Assyria. In 714 BCE, Assyrian sources report a significant Cimmerian attack on these territories, which led to the considerable weakening of Urartu. Assyrian documents depict the Cimmerians as a group of warlike tribes united by shared traditions and culture. The language of the Cimmerians remains a subject of debate, but the prevailing view is that it belonged to the Iranian branch of the Indo-European language family. Although the Cimmerians actively and extensively used bronze, they were among the first in Eastern Europe to adopt iron tools and weapons. This gave them an advantage in warfare. In the 7th century BCE, during another invasion of Asia Minor, they dealt a significant blow to the Phrygian kingdom. The Cimmerians even destroyed its capital, the city of Gordion. According to Herodotus, King Midas, who ruled Phrygia at the time, took his own life in despair after the defeat. Presumably, for the settled population of Asia Minor, the arrival of the Cimmerian invasion was a true shock. In their military tactics, the Cimmerians combined war chariots and cavalry. Although chariots were a symbol of military power and an important element of their burial rights, cavalry became their trump card. They were among the first to integrate mounted warriors into their military strategy, laying the foundation for future nomadic armies. Additionally, the Cimmerians used advanced horse harnesses for control, which were innovative at the time. Interestingly, their burials are not marked by lavish treasures, but Cimmerian kurgans occasionally contain artifacts that may have originated from the territory of modern China or Eastern Central Asia. If this is the case, it suggests that a network of trade routes across the Great Steppe existed as early as the Early Iron Age. Even Assyria, the powerful empire of that time, suffered attacks from the Cimmerians. It is known that the Cimmerians attempted to attack Assyria during the reign of King Esarhaddon, breaking into the empire's territory and plundering several of its towns. The Cimmerians suffered defeats in a series of battles, but due to the mobility of their units, they managed to establish a foothold within the empire for a time. Only later, during the reign of Ashurbanipal, were the Assyrians able to finally drive the Cimmerians out of Asia Minor. One of the most famous Cimmerian campaigns was the attack on Lydia in the mid-7th century BCE. In 644 BCE, the Cimmerians captured the capital, Sardis, except for the Acropolis, which withstood the assault thanks to its strong fortifications. This was one of their most powerful invasions. The Lydian king Gyges attempted to resist the onslaught, but was killed in battle. His successors formed an alliance with Assyria, which later allowed them to drive the Cimmerians out of the region. In addition to their innovative use of cavalry for that time, the Cimmerians also had advanced weaponry, particularly their renowned iron swords. Before the Cimmerians, bladed weapons in this region were made of bronze, but iron swords were more durable, allowing them to be longer and more widely produced. According to archaeological data, a common form of protection for Cimmerian warriors was a leather cuirass with metal discs sewn onto it. Though at least some Cimmerians also wore scale armor, which enabled them to field not only lightly armed mounted archers, but also heavier cavalry for close combat. Despite this, they could not withstand the Scythians. Among ancient authors, Herodotus described the Cimmerians in his work Histories, though his information is based on legends and oral traditions. He mentions the Cimmerians in the context of their migration from the northern Black Sea region following their defeat by the Scythians. As they retreated, the Cimmerians split into groups. One part moved toward the Caucasus, while another headed into Asia Minor. Some remained behind, some assimilated among the Scythians, while others migrated to Crimea, where they likely formed the foundation of the Taurean tribe, later interacting with Greek colonists in the northern Black Sea region. In Asia Minor, the Cimmerians were ultimately defeated by Lydia under King Aliates II around 600 BCE. By that time, their influence had already faded, as their former lands in the Black Sea region had been taken over by the Scythians, leaving them with no homeland to return to after their defeat. The Scythians are representatives of Iranian-speaking nomadic tribes, which began to form based on numerous nomadic and semi-nomadic cultures of the region that existed there as early as the 20th century BCE. The Scythians likely emerged as a distinct group as a result of these processes in the steppes of modern Kazakhstan, after which they gradually moved westward into the Black Sea region. Archaeological findings, particularly in the Altai and the Volga steppes, testify to their movement through these territories in the 8th to 7th centuries BCE. During this migration, the Scythians established an influential community in the steppe zone between the Don and the Danube, including the territory of modern Ukraine, the North Caucasus, and the Black Sea region. There, their culture was fully formed. The Scythians were known for their sophisticated animal style in decorative and jewelry arts, burial mounds, and masterful metallurgy. The skill of Scythian jewelers in working with fine details still impresses craftsmen today. They were virtuoso riders and expert archers, which allowed them to dominate the steppe regions. The Scythians outperformed the Cimmerians in organization and were far more skilled and widespread in using mounted archers. They used short but powerful composite bows. By controlling their horses with only their legs, a warrior could turn in any direction and shoot backward while pretending to retreat or during other maneuvers. The Scythians had another advantage over the Cimmerians – larger numbers, and better saddles and armor for close combat. In the 7th century BCE, after driving the Cimmerians out, the Scythians established control over the steppes of modern-day Ukraine, creating numerous tribal alliances. Even then, they were noted for their distant military campaigns, which may have been linked to pursuing the Cimmerians or had their own objectives. In the 670s BCE, they allied with media against the Assyrian Empire, attempting to expand their influence into the southern regions of the Caucasus and the northern part of Western Asia. After crossing the Caucasus Mountains, the Scythians defeated their former allies and took control of media for approximately 28 years. Herodotus mentions that the Scythians were fearsome conquerors, and their control of media ended only due to a conspiracy by the Medes. According to legend, during a banquet, the Medes killed the Scythian leaders. Shortly after, in the same 7th century BCE, the Scythians emerged as allies of Assyria, which was desperately fighting against a coalition of the rebellious Babylonian kingdom and media, which by this time had gained independence. The Scythians in particular participated in the defense of Nineveh, the Assyrian capital. Despite the effectiveness of Scythian units, Nineveh fell, but the Scythians continued military actions in the region. They acted as temporary allies for various factions, mercenaries, and continued their devastating raids for plunder. Notably, the Scythians participated in the war between the Median king Syaxares and the ruler of the Lydian kingdom in Asia Minor, Aliates. In the mid-7th century BCE, the Scythians launched a large-scale invasion of Lydia. Herodotus notes that they made a series of swift attacks on local cities, which were unable to prepare timely defenses. The invasion ended with peace, concluded between the Scythians and Lydia. During the period of their near-eastern campaigns, many Scythian tribes roamed the steppes of the Kuban region and the North Caucasus. They were connected to Transcaucasia and the Near East through the eastern shore of the Black Sea, the central Caucasian passes, and the Caspian Sea coast, which facilitated raids. However, after the peace with Lydia, the Scythians retreated from the Near East and returned to the Pontic region, where they continued to dominate. In the 6th century BCE, their culture experienced a period of flourishing. The Scythians developed trade with Greek colonies in the northern Black Sea, They also controlled trade routes between Europe and Asia, acting as intermediaries in the exchange of grain, furs, slaves, and other goods. The Scythian religion was polytheistic, honoring several deities such as Tabiti, Api, and Papai, whom Herodotus equated with Hestia, Gaia, and Zeus, respectively. The Scythian language belonged to the Iranian group, as evidenced by the names preserved in Greek sources. In 513 BCE, the Persian Empire of the Achaemenids, led by Darius I, attempted to conquer the Scythians. Darius I organized a large-scale campaign, much of which unfolded in 512 BCE due to lengthy preparations. The motivations for the campaign included expanding Persian power to the north, eliminating the threat posed by the Scythians to Persian territories, and securing control over the strategic resources of the Black Sea region. The campaign also served as a preparation for further expeditions to the Balkans and Greece. Darius' army consisted of an enormous number of warriors, according to Herodotus, up to 700,000 from 80 nations, including Persians themselves, as well as Medes, Bactrians, Indians, and many others. The main part of the army crossed the Bosporus via a bridge built from ships, after which they marched through Thrace to the Danube. The crossing of the Danube was ensured by Ionian Greeks, Persian allies who built another bridge of ships. The Scythians, likely led by their king Idanthusus, employed a unique strategy for the time. They avoided open battles, withdrew their forces deeper into the steppe, destroyed local resources, and constantly harassed the Persians with short raids. Their powerful bows allowed them to strike from a great distance, and the extraordinary skill of their horsemen made them nearly impossible to counter-attack. Additionally, during their retreats, the Scythians destroyed the food supply. This tactic wore down Darius I's army, which was ill-suited to fighting in the steppe environment and suffered from hunger, thirst, and epidemics. The legend surrounding the history of the Scythians sending gifts to Darius includes a bird, a mouse, a frog, and five arrows. This gesture was meant to demonstrate the Scythians' superiority in knowledge of the local conditions and the dangerous pose to the Persians. Darius recognized the futility of the campaign and retreated across the Danube. The Greeks, who guarded the bridge, covered the rear guard for the Persians during their withdrawal. The consequences of the campaign were significant. The Scythians preserved their independence and demonstrated the effectiveness of their tactics in steppe warfare. Despite the defeat, Darius strengthened his control over Thrace, but he lost valuable resources and time, which impacted the subsequent course of his conflict with the Greeks. Herodotus details this campaign as an example of Scythian military mastery as they suffered minimal losses, while Darius I barely returned alive from this expedition. Later, in the 5th to 4th centuries BCE, the Scythians conducted independent military raids into the Balkans. They became involved in the region's political intrigues, actively forming situational alliances and engaging in wars with the Thracian tribes. The Scythians aimed to control the trade routes that passed through the Balkans and opposed local peoples, who could be both their enemies and allies, depending on the political situation. The later phase of Scythian development is notable for the formation of a new social structure, which can be roughly divided into royal Scythians, nomads, and farmers. The Scythians developed a rather distinctive statehood. The royal Scythians established a distinctive form of governance with a developed bureaucratic structure and administrative apparatus. Their role was tied to military and social organization, as well as to trade and exchanges with other cultures, particularly the Greeks and other peoples of the Black Sea region. The majority of the population engaged in nomadic pastoralism, moving across the steppes. There were also Scythian farmers, settled or semi-settled people who practiced agriculture. They played a crucial role in the Scythian economy, providing food, particularly grain. Importantly, all three groups of Scythians remained warriors, as confirmed by archaeological evidence. The social stratification within the Scythians was likely more professional than cultural, as archaeological evidence supports shared burial traditions, a common style of weaponry, and material culture across different groups. It is probable that these groups were not completely closed off, and transitions between them could occur through military campaigns, dynastic alliances, or individual abilities. Scythians is a collective term for a group of tribes united by a common cultural identity. But it is possible that people of other ethnic origins, such as remnants of the Cimmerians or the forest-dwelling populations of Eastern Europe, were also part of their state. One of the central figures in the late history of the Scythians was King Ateas, who ruled in the 4th century BCE. He finally united the scattered Scythian tribes into a single centralized state. Prior to him, Scythian kings were more akin to leaders of tribal alliances that acted autonomously. Under Ateas, though, strict centralization of power was implemented, and administrative mechanisms were established. Ateas was also known for minting his own coins. The first known Scythian coins, which symbolized political and economic independence. This currency was mostly produced in the Bosporan kingdom, but was used for internal circulation and trade with Greek colonies. The reign of Ateas was also marked by an intensification of contacts with Greek city-states. This fostered cultural exchange, but also made the Scythians dependent on the Greek market. Archaeological finds from this period reveal rich burials that demonstrate the growing social differentiation. At the same time, threats from neighboring peoples increased, particularly the Sarmatians, who had already appeared in the far east of Europe and were gradually moving westward, slowly reclaiming peripheral territories from the Scythians. The northern and western neighbors of the Scythians at that time were the Proto-Slavic and early Baltic tribes. The Scythians maintained economic ties with them, but also occasionally engaged in conflicts. This period in Scythian history reflects their adaptation to new challenges, while gradually losing dominance in the region. In 339 BCE, Ateas entered into conflict with the Macedonian king Philip II. The Greek king, who was also the father of Alexander the Great, gathered a large army and marched into Scythian territory. The Scythians likely tried to organize a guerrilla movement to delay the Macedonians. Nevertheless, they managed to break through the Scythian defenses. The climax of the war was a battle that took place on the territory of modern Ukraine, where Philip II launched a massive invasion. The battle was very intense, but the Scythians were forced to retreat. According to ancient historians, Ateas was killed in battle, despite being over 90 years old. After his death, the unity of the Scythians began to break down, weakening their state. In the 3rd century BCE, the Scythians declined and partially assimilated with other peoples. Interestingly, like the Cimmerians before them, the Scythians seemingly sought refuge in Crimea. There, remnants of Scythian culture survived until the 3rd century CE. They managed to establish a late Scythian state, which persisted for so long due to the isolation of the peninsula. The Scythians were eventually displaced from the continental part of the northern Black Sea region by the Sarmatians. The Sarmatians were also a nomadic people of the Iranian linguistic group. Still, their origin is a subject of debate. Most often, their roots are linked to the Sarmatian tribes that inhabited the area of the Ural region and modern-day western Kazakhstan. Even so, the Sarmatians' burial traditions, material culture, ornamentation, and military practices suggest that these tribes may have originated from regions closer to the borders of modern-day China. Archaeological evidence points to interactions between the Sarmatians and the Massageti tribes, who lived near Xinjiang. There is a theory that the Sarmatians migrated far to the west under pressure from early Huns, passed through the territory of the Sarmatians, and settled in the steppes of the Black Sea region, where Scythian culture was already in decline. Archaeology suggests that the Sarmatians, as a group of tribes, began to distinguish themselves as a separate culture around the 7th to 6th centuries BCE. This process occurred in the southwestern Siberian region, in the southern parts of modern Kazakhstan, as well as south of the Volga River and in the Caucasus. While the Scythians were at the peak of their power, the Sarmatians remained their northern and eastern neighbors, and there was active cultural interaction between them. All the same, in the 3rd century BCE, the Sarmatians began to penetrate the steppes of the northern Black Sea region. After their migration to Eastern Europe, the Sarmatians began to appear in ancient works. Strabo, for example, mentions the Sarmatians in his Geography, describing them as a people gradually displacing the Scythians. Pliny the Elder also refers to the Sarmatians in his Natural History, where he describes their location and cultural characteristics. It is likely that there was no large-scale war between the Scythians and the Sarmatians. Nonetheless, a separate Sarmatian tribe, the Surases, launched devastating raids to the west, which not only destroyed Scythia, but also impacted the ancient city-states of the Black Sea region. Both the Scythians and the Cimmerians before them were tribal alliances, but it was the Sarmatians whose differences between tribes were particularly pronounced. In addition to the Surases, the most well-known Sarmatian tribes included the Ayazegis, the Roxolani, and the Orsi, who ultimately pushed the Scythians into Crimea and settled in their respective areas of the region. Later, the Alans also joined them. The unifying factor among all these Sarmatian tribes was their culture, including military traditions. It was the Sarmatians who perfected the tactic of massive cavalry charges. The Sarmatian religion is less well-known than the Scythian one, but there are mentions of their pantheon, including the custom of worshipping the sword as a symbol of the god of war, as well as the veneration of ancestor cults. The Sarmatians are also known for the high status and freedoms of women in their society, especially in comparison to the Greeks. Women defended the camp while the men were away on military campaigns, rode horseback, and could even participate in governance, such as Queen Amagi. The Sarmatians never developed a centralized state, as they formed tribal unions that functioned as confederations. After establishing themselves in the territory of modern-day Ukraine, Romania, and Moldova, the Sarmatians repeatedly raided lands that were under the influence of the Roman state since the 2nd century BCE. According to some sources, the Roman general and proconsul Lucius Cornelius Scipio attempted to stop the aggressive expansion of the Sarmatians in these regions, but was unable to achieve significant results. Throughout their domination of the steppes of Eastern Europe, the Sarmatians employed swift cavalry attacks during flanking maneuvers against enemy legions. They also frequently raided Roman settlements, destroying them before quickly retreating. Later, the Sarmatians began to support other barbarian tribes that, from the 1st century BCE, put pressure on the borders of Rome. In the 1st century CE, the Roxolani invaded Moesia, where they clashed with Roman forces. In 69 CE, they were defeated by the legions under the command of Petronius Tropilianus, but continued to pose a threat. At the beginning of the 2nd century, the Sarmatian tribes of the Iosages joined the Dacians in their fight against Emperor Trajan. During the Dacian Wars, the Sarmatians provided cavalry, which was a crucial component of the coalition forces. After the defeat of Dacia, the Sarmatian tribes were forced to sign peace treaties with Rome, though they lasted only briefly. The Iosages and other Sarmatian tribes later took part in the series of conflicts known as the Marcomannic Wars, during which the Sarmatians fought alongside Germanic tribes against the Roman Empire. In the 3rd century, the Sarmatians launched a major campaign into Pannonia. There, the Iosages actively fought against the Romans, using mobile cavalry units. In response, the Romans, under the command of Emperor Probus, defeated the Sarmatians in 279 CE. Yet, the Sarmatians remained a powerful force on the borders of the Empire. The lifestyle of the Sarmatians was largely nomadic, but they also mastered the art of making exquisite jewelry and high-quality weapons. The Sarmatians employed a tactic of heavy cavalry charging in tight formation. Their riders were protected by scale armor, as were their horses. Due to the great weight and high speed of the charge, the rider could transfer a tremendous amount of energy into the tip of the spear or sword. Previously, this tactic had not been possible, because the impact with the target would have knocked the warrior out of a less advanced saddle. But the high pommel and perfect saddle design solved this problem, even though the Sarmatians did not yet use stirrups. This tactic had a profound influence on military affairs in medieval Europe. After the arrival of the Goths in the territories of modern Ukraine and Moldova, the Sarmatians merged into their more centralized state. Nonetheless, the Sarmatians maintained their cultural distinctiveness, as evidenced by the burial practices of the time. The Goths practiced cremation, but the Sarmatians continued to build burial mounds, kurgans. They taught the Goths their heavy cavalry tactics, which contributed to the development of chivalry. The period of the great migration of peoples marked the end of Sarmatian and Gothic dominance in the region. Some Sarmatian tribes were conquered, displaced, and assimilated by the Huns under Attila's invasion. On the other hand, there were exceptions. For example, the Alans joined his army. After the collapse of the Hunnic alliance, the Alans and other Sarmatian tribes migrated to Western Europe. Some of them settled in Gaul, Spain, and North Africa, where they became allies of the Vandals and other Germanic tribes. In the 5th century, the Alans even formed a separate Alanian kingdom in the southern part of the Iberian Peninsula, the last state of Indo-European nomads in the Old World.